Land and Water Solutions

Permanent URI for this collectionhttps://hdl.handle.net/10568/81591

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Irrigation-nutrition linkages: Evidence from northern Ghana
(Working Paper, 2019-12-11) Mekonnen, Dawit Kelemework; Choufani, Jowel; Bryan, Elizabeth; Abizari, Abdul-Razak; Ringler, Claudia; Amikuzuno, Joseph
We analyze the linkages between irrigation and nutrition using data from irrigators and non-irrigators in Northern Ghana. The results show that (i) there is a modest difference in the overall household dietary diversity score between irrigators and non-irrigators, (ii) there are significant differences in the consumption of animal source foods between irrigators and non-irrigators, (iii) there are significant differences in the consumption of fruits and vegetables as well as sugar and honey between irrigators and non-irrigators, and (iv) the sources of food consumption differ between irrigators and non-irrigators. The analysis shows strong association between households’ nutritional status and their access to irrigation, with evidences suggesting that the irrigation-nutrition linkages play out both through the income and production pathways in Northern Ghana.
Considering gender when promoting small-scale irrigation technologies: Guidance for inclusive irrigation interventions
(Working Paper, 2018-11-15) Theis, Sophie; Bekele, Rahel Deribe; Lefore, Nicole; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth S.; Ringler, Claudia
Many actors promoting irrigation technologies in low- and middle-income countries want to ensure that men, women, and different social groups have equal opportunity to participate in and benefit from irrigation but are uncertain how to do so. This tool provides a guide and structured set of questions to assess gender dynamics in irrigation in a specific context. The questions can be used to collect information prior to, during, or after project implementation to inform different strategic approaches of the project, including gender-sensitive marketing and dissemination strategies, design of technologies, risk mitigation approaches, adaptive management, and/or monitoring and evaluation (M&E) activities.
Drivers of adoption of small-scale irrigation in Mali and its impacts on nutrition across sex of irrigators
(Working Paper, 2020-03-01) Nkonya, Ephraim M.; Kato, Edward; Ru, Yating
Irrigation is an important strategy to increase agricultural productivity, improve nutrition security and reduce climate-related risks in rural Africa, but adoption of this technology has been low. Using data from the Living Standards Measurement Study, this paper analyzes the characteristics of irrigation in Mali and its impact on nutrition across sex of irrigators. Results show that gravity irrigation is the most common technology and is practiced by 47 percent of irrigators. The share of women irrigators (3 percent of all plots) is significantly lower than that of men. Econometric results show that the proximity of crop fields to the homestead increases the propensity to use motor pumps while more remote plots are more likely to rely on gravity irrigation. Literacy and income from nonfarm activities increase the propensity to use motorized irrigation technologies. Access to motor pumps, in turn, increases consumption of fruits and vegetables, oils, spices, and cereals for female-headed households. Overall, irrigation increases consumption of nutrient-rich food groups, which significantly improves household nutrition in addition to increasing income. Participation in farmer groups increases the propensity to adopt irrigation. Farmer groups might also be an entry point for capacity building on irrigation; and groups to which women farmers belong should receive information on irrigation. Farmer groups also tend to support market participation, which is important to help address the challenge of economies of scale of small-scale irrigators.
Resilience in agro-ecological landscapes: process principles and outcome indicators
(Report, 2021-12-31) Fabricius, C.; Novellie, P.; Ringler, Claudia; Uhlenbrook, Stefan; Wright, D.
This paper explores outcome indicators and process principles to evaluate landscape resilience in agro-ecosystems, drawing on outcome indicator case studies of the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE). Four questions are addressed: (1) which outcome indicators and process principles feature most prominently in the seminal literature on resilient agro-ecological landscapes? (2) to what extent are these principles represented in CGIAR Outcome Impact Case Reports (OICRs) and selected peer-reviewed studies? (3) how does the use of process principles in the case studies compare to their occurrence in the theoretical literature? and (4) which process principles co-occur with related outcome indicators in the OICRs? The findings enable researchers and practitioners to be more specific about the outcomes and processes that drive resilience in agro-ecosystems, thereby informing adaptive program management. Seven novel research themes are proposed.
Accelerating rural energy access for agricultural transformation: contribution of the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems to transforming food, land and water systems in a climate crisis
(Report, 2021-12-31) Magalhaes, M.; Ringler, Claudia; Verma, Shilp; Schmitter, Petra
With adverse impacts of climate change growing in number and intensity, there is an urgent need to reduce emissions from food systems to net zero. This can only be achieved if rural areas in low- and middle-income countries gain access to clean energy. A review of the research and capacity building contributions of the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE) over the last 10 years suggests important contributions in the areas of energy policy and energy investment planning, cost and feasibility frameworks, and business models for clean energy technology uptake. WLE has also conducted successful pilot projects on solar irrigation to provide an evidence base for scaling up innovative energy initiatives. Finally, the program also considered non-agricultural uses of energy where relevant to food systems, and implemented capacity building activities. Going forward, CGIAR has a key role to play in providing information, supporting access and piloting innovative, scalable clean energy interventions to support the achievement of multiple impacts for the poorest and most food-insecure women and men farmers and entrepreneurs.
Climate migration and social transformation: The case of West Africa
(Brief, 2021-12-01) CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems
Although migration has long been an adaptive strategy in West Africa driven by multiple interrelated factors, climate migration is expected to increase as the impacts of climate change worsen. Climate migration is widely expected to accelerate existing trends, including the movement of people from the dry Sahelian belt to coastal countries and urbanization. Migration is increasingly seen as a climate adaptation strategy with benefits as well as challenges including conflict risks, ‘trapped populations’ stranded in marginal areas, and the rapid growth of cities. The benefits and costs of migration will be unevenly distributed at the national, local and household levels. Migration leads to profound changes in the socio-cultural dynamics of both the sending and receiving areas, including changes in household composition, gender roles and social support networks. These social transformations are poorly understood and mapped, even though they will significantly influence future migration flows and overall development outcomes. Policy makers and researchers should work together to improve data collection and develop social transformation frameworks that can inform policy formulation processes and investment decisions.
Unlocking the potential of flood farming to reduce flood risks and boost dryland production in Ethiopia
(Other, 2021-12-01) Desta, Gizaw; Legesse, Gizachew; Amede, Tilahun; Rooyen, Andre F. van; Whitbread, Anthony M.
Ethiopia is experiencing extreme weather variability with some areas being vulnerable to drought, while others are impacted by flooding. Despite being given relatively less attention as compared to drought, flooding has long been recognized as one of the major disasters affecting the lives and livelihoods of the people. Flood disaster has been limited in the past in terms of frequency and scope. The recent trend of increasing incidents of floods in Ethiopia is disrupting the livelihoods of the population residing in the lowlands. Flood hazard is part and parcel of living for a large number of people in the lowlands such as districts in Afar located along Awash River, in the Somali region along the Wabi Shebele River, in the South Omo along Omo River, in Gambella along the Baro and Akobo Rivers, and floodplains surrounding Lake Tana. The humid highlands that are characterized by steep ad rugged terrain and heavy rainfall features pose the lowlands prone to floods during the rainy seasons. Often, floods occur in the country as a result of intense and sustained rainfalls in the highlands causing rivers to overflow and inundate areas along the riverbanks in lowland plains. On the other hand, these regions have one of the highest potentials for flood farming as the runoff generated from the highlands of Oromia, Amhara, SNNPR, and Tigray can be available in the immediate lowlands.
Optimising the water we eat—rethinking policy to enhance productive and sustainable use of water in agri-food systems across scales
(Journal Article, 2022-01) Uhlenbrook, Stefan; Yu, W.; Schmitter, Petra; Smith, Douglas Mark
Sustainable and resilient food systems depend on sustainable and resilient water management. Resilience is characterised by overlapping decision spaces and scales and interdependencies among water users and competing sectors. Increasing water scarcity, due to climate change and other environmental and societal changes, makes putting caps on the consumption of water resources indispensable. Implementation requires an understanding of different domains, actors, and their objectives, and drivers and barriers to transformational change. We suggest a scale-specific approach, in which agricultural water use is embedded in a larger systems approach (including natural and human systems). This approach is the basis for policy coherence and the design of effective incentive schemes to change agricultural water use behaviour and, therefore, optimise the water we eat.
Impact of raised beds on surface runoff and soil loss in Alfisols and Vertisols
(Journal Article, 2022-04) Garg, K. K.; Anantha, K. H.; Dixit, S.; Nune, R.; Venkataradha, A.; Wable, P.; Budama, N.; Singh, R.
Hydrological monitoring is crucial to designing agricultural water management (AWM) interventions. This study characterizes the soil hydraulic properties of Alfisols and Vertisols and develops rainfall-runoff-soil loss relationships through long-term hydrological monitoring. Two types of landform management techniques, i.e., raised bed and flat bed, were followed in three paired watersheds of 2–5 ha, characterized by deep Vertisols, medium deep Vertisols and Alfisols. Surface runoff and soil loss were monitored at the outlet of the respective watersheds for 8–12 years. In addition, 29 infiltration tests were conducted using a tension disc infiltrometer by applying a suction of −150 mm, −100 mm, −50 mm, and −20 mm. Soil macro porosity and hydraulic conductivity in the raised bed landform were found to be almost double those in the flat beds at −50 mm suction head in both the soil types. Saturated hydraulic conductivity was found higher in Alfisols compared to Vertisols; however, less runoff was generated in Vertisols compared to Alfisols. This phenomenon is largely explained by the high water storage capacity of Vertisols. Runoff generated from both the soils was less than 2% of total rainfall (<500 mm) received in dry years. In normal years (600–900 mm), runoff coefficient for Vertisols ranged from 7–11% of total rainfall compared to 16–17% in the case of Alfisols. However, runoff generated from fallow land was 17% in deep Vertisols due to higher soil moisture content and limited available storage compared to the cropped land. The raised bed method reduced surface runoff by 15–20 mm in Alfisols compared to 35–40 mm in Vertisols. Runoff from the raised beds was significantly lower during light and moderate intensity rainfall compared to the flat bed method; however, this difference was not significant during events of high and very high intensity rainfall. In addition, raised beds reduced soil loss by 30–60% compared to flat beds. The results of this study are useful in designing evidence-based AWM strategies under rainfed conditions.
Impact of agricultural water management interventions on upstream–downstream trade-offs in the upper Cauvery catchment, southern India: a modelling study
(Journal Article, 2022-04) Wable, P. S.; Garg, K. K.; Nune, R.; Venkataradha, A.; Anantha K. H.; Srinivasan, V.; Ragab, R.; Rowan, J.; Keller, V.; Majumdar, P.; Rees, G.; Singh, R.; Dixit, S.
The Cauvery basin in southern India is experiencing transboundary issues due to increasing water demand. This study analysed water balance components and the impact of agricultural water management (AWM) interventions in the upper Cauvery catchment of the Cauvery basin. Results showed that the study catchment receives an average of 1280 mm of annual rainfall. Of this, 29% (370 mm) flows downstream, 54% (700 mm) contributes to evapotranspiration (ET) and 17% (215 mm) contributes to groundwater recharge and surface storage. Rainfall varies from 700 to 5400 mm and the Western Ghats (mountain pass) are the main source of freshwater generation. The estimated ET in different catchments ranged from 500 to 900 mm per annum. An increase in the allocation of fresh water supplied by all three reservoirs (Hemavathi, Harangi and KRS) was observed in the canal command areas, from 1450 million cubic metres (MCM) yr‾¹ in 1971–1980 to 3800 MCM yr‾¹ in 2001–2010. AWM interventions harvested 140–160 MCM (13–20 mm) of surface runoff upstream of the upper Cauvery and reduced inflow into the Krishnaraja Sagar reservoir by 2–6%. The study findings are useful for designing and planning suitable water management interventions at basin scale.
Transforming livestock productivity through watershed interventions: A case study of Parasai-Sindh watershed in Bundelkhand region of Central India
(Journal Article, 2022-02) Dev, I.; Singh, R.; Garg, K. K.; Ram, A.; Singh, D.; Kumar, N.; Dhyani, S. K.; Singh, A.; Anantha, K. H.; Akuraju, V.; Dixit, S.; Tewari, R.K.; Dwivedi, R. P.; Arunachalam, A.
CONTEXT: Global experiences reveal the positive impact of watershed-based interventions in improving livelihoods and environmental security. In the drylands, increasing forage resources and improving livestock productivity is a critical challenge. OBJECTIVES: The overarching aim of this paper is to analyse the impact of watershed-based interventions on livestock population, productivity, fodder resources, and biomass availability. The paper describes the interrelationship between land, water, crop, and livestock and how the gap in forage deficit can be bridged through a range of watershed interventions. METHODS: The study was undertaken in the Parasai-Sindh watershed of Central India between 2011 and 2016. A 300-year-old defunct haveli (a traditional rainwater harvesting structure) was renovated and nine check dams along the drainage line were constructed. Nearly 25,000 running-meters of field bunds were constructed. Large fields (2-3 ha) were divided into relatively smaller plots (0.3–0.5 ha) to reduce runoff velocity. The impact of watershed interventions on water availability, livestock productivity, forage yield, and income was studied through hydrological monitoring, primary household survey and principal component analysis (PCA) biplot and hierarchical clustering. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: The watershed interventions enhanced groundwater availability leading to greater fodder availability, 22% increase in livestock population (ACU) and a 120% increase in milk production over a period of five years. The bovine population recorded a surge of 193% (cattle) and 32% (buffalo) over this period. Mean dry matter (DM, fodder) availability also increased from 10 t/household/year to 16.7 t/household/year owing to improved water availability. Groundnut (rainy season) and wheat (post rainy season) contributed significantly as forage resources. There was an annual forage demand of 5560 t DM for a livestock population of 2175 ACU in 2011 and of 6770 t DM for a livestock population of 2650 ACU in 2016. Annual forage biomass availability was estimated at 4219 t DM in 2011 and 6977 t DM in 2016. There was a deficit of 1341 t DM (24%) in 2011 which turned into a 3% surplus of 210 t DM in 2016 through watershed-based interventions. With increased cropping intensity and milk production, average annual household income increased from US$ 1325 to US$ 2430 over the five-year period. SIGNIFICANCE: This case study clearly illustrates the impact of watershed-based interventions on livestock population, productivity, forage resources, and biomass availability to bridge the gap in forage deficit. Its findings serve as a guide to widely scale up watershed-based interventions for improved water and biomass availability, and livestock productivity in semi-arid and dryland regions.
Landscape resource management for sustainable crop intensification
(Journal Article, 2022-01-01) Anantha, K. H.; Garg, K. K.; Singh, R.; Akuraju, V.; Dev, I.; Petrie, C.A; Whitbread, Anthony M.; Dixit, S.
Crop intensification is required to meet the food demands of an increasing population. This paper presents data from three paired scaling-up initiatives to compare the benefits of landscape-based interventions over individual plot-level interventions using evidence generated in the Indian semi-arid tropics. A range of soil and water conservation interventions were implemented in a decentralized manner following the landscape-based approach. The plot-level approach focused only on balanced fertilizer application and improved crop cultivars while the landscape-based interventions primarily addressed moisture availability, which was the key to reducing risks of crop failure besides aiding productivity gain and enhanced land and water-use efficiency. These interventions have additionally harvested 50–150 mm of surface runoff and facilitated groundwater recharge in 550–800 mm rainfall zones. Individual plot-level interventions also improved the crop yield significantly over the control plots. However, crop intensification was not achieved due to limited moisture availability. Landscape-based interventions produced 100%–300% higher crop production per year, greater income generation (>100%), and improved water productivity. Landscape-based interventions were also found to be beneficial in terms of reducing soil loss by 75%–90% and improving base flow availability additionally by 20–75 d in a year compared to untreated watersheds. With increased moisture availability, fallow lands in respective watersheds have been utilized for cultivation, thereby enhancing crop intensification. The findings of the study provide critical insights into the design of approaches suitable for scaling-up projects in order to both create impact and target the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.
Mapping development potential of dry-season small-scale irrigation in Sub-Saharan African countries under joint biophysical and economic constraints: An agent-based modeling approach with an application to Ethiopia
(Journal Article, 2021-01) Xie, Hua; You, Liangzhi; Dile, Yihun T.; Worqlul, Abeyou W.; Bizimana, Jean-Claude
Sub-Saharan Africa has long been beset with food insecurity. Investment in small-scale irrigation may provide a solution to address the challenge by extending crop production into the dry season. We present an agent-based modeling system to assess the potential of dry-season small-irrigation development in Sub-Saharan Africa with an application to Ethiopia. We identify significant potential for investing in dry-season small-scale irrigation in Ethiopia and map geographic domains with highest investment opportunities.
Understanding the Aspirations of Farming Communities in Developing Countries: A Systematic Review of the Literature
(Journal Article, 2021-08) Nandi, R.; Nedumaran, S.
This study surveys the panorama of research on the importance of aspirations of farming communities, identifies research gaps and prospects for future research. The analysis of 22 studies identified from 419 research articles sheds light on the relationships between aspirations, agriculture, women’s empowerment, poverty, and rural youth. Aspirations of the rural poor play a significant role in shaping their activities and investments. Furthermore, the poor and those who are exposed to natural disasters are more likely suffering from aspiration failure and their resilience needs to be built. Specifically, women’s empowerment could be supported through raising aspirations. In addition, intergenerational aspirations and corresponding investment plans in agriculture are in absolute contrast and parental desires and their children’s aspirations do not align. Overall, development program-specific research is needed to determine policies and programs that successfully and cost-effectively raise the rural poor's aspirations and thereby improve livelihoods in developing countries.
The interplay between food market access and farm household dietary diversity in low and middle income countries: A systematic review of literature
(Journal Article, 2021-03) Nandi, R.; Nedumaran, S.; Ravula, P.
A significant share of undernourished people are smallholder farmers in low and middle-income countries. Recent studies advocate improving market access as an important pathway towards improving the dietary diversity of farm households over increasing farm production diversity. A systematic review of five databases using Priori criteria identified 28 original studies from 14 low and middle income countries by screening 786 articles using different indicators of market access, diets, and nutrition. Most of the studies reported a consistent positive association between access to markets and dietary diversity, and few studies reported positive or negative association. However, findings are context-specific from several countries in Africa and Asia. Further research is needed to conclude that improving market access is an effective pathway to improve a farm household's dietary quality. Eight research priorities are identified based on the gaps in the existing research literature.
Assessment of smallholder farmers’ demand for and adoption constraints to small-scale irrigation technologies: Evidence from Ethiopia
(Journal Article, 2021-05) Tesfaye, M. Z.; Balana, Bedru B.; Bizimana, J.
Increasing agricultural productivity through irrigation technologies is recognized as an effective way to improve smallholders’ livelihoods and food security in developing countries. However, most smallholder farmers do not have access to irrigation technologies. Using a double-bounded contingent valuation survey data from smallholders in Ethiopia and probit and bivariate probit models, this paper analyzes smallholder farmers’ demand for agricultural water lifting technologies (WLTs) and the factors affecting the demand for these technologies. Assessment of farmers’ preferences among three water lifting technologies available in local markets (motorized pump, rope and washer and pulley) show that farmers prefer motorized pumps to pulley or rope and washer technologies. Use of motorized pumps is more efficient and save labour than pulley or rope and washer technologies. However, results show that smallholders are constrained by inadequate access to financing options to adopt more efficient and labour-saving water lifting technology and hence operate below the production possibility frontier. Enhanced access to finance could help ease this constraint and allow smallholders to acquire more efficient irrigation technologies, enhance adoption and improve productivity. With a growing population pressure and land fragmentation in rural Ethiopia, the livelihoods of smallholders depend mainly on the meagre land endowment they possess. Increasing the productivity of land using yield enhancing technologies, particularly multiple cropping per year via small-scale irrigation is key to improve their livelihoods. Targeted interventions are thus warranted to mitigate the key adoption constraints such as improving access to credit and technical know-how of smallholders.
Synthesis of community-based watershed rehabilitation and management activities in Jordan and Afghanistan – towards out-scaling
(Report, 2021-03-08) Strohmeier, S.
ICARDA, in affiliation with the CGIAR Research Program on Water Land and Ecosystems (WLE), has undertaken various community-based watershed activities with its local country partners. ICARDA’s portfolio includes the ongoing watershed rehabilitation and management activities in Jordan and past bilateral projects conducted in, e.g., Afghanistan. The agropastoral Rehabilitation approach conducted in Jordan has considerable potential for out-scaling and is under evaluation through an ongoing WLE initiative targeting the marginal drylands in south-eastern Ethiopia. Pursuing an ex-ante out-scaling approach (through modeling) builds on well-selected socioecological criteria and limitations and considers the experiences and lessons learned from previous project activities.
Guidelines on soil salinity and irrigation water on date palms الدليل الارشادي لتأثير ملوحة التربة ومياه الري على نخيل التمر
(Other, 2021-01-22) Al Wahaibi, H. S.; Ibrahim, A. O.
Salinity is one of the challenges facing agricultural production, especially in arid and semi-arid desert areas. As the increased concentration of salts in the water or soil negatively affects crops' growth and productivity, the successive irrigation process causes the salts to be washed under the root zone. The salts accumulate in the soil's depths, which requires soaking the accumulated salts. Their accumulation leads to a severe lack of absorption of the plant's nutrients, especially potassium, magnesium, and calcium, thus weak growth and low plant productivity in quantity and quality. The rise in the groundwater level adds groundwater salts due to its upward movement and reaching the root growth zone to increase its content of dissolved salts in it. The salts accumulated in the roots' vessels are transferred to the stem and leaves, and the salts accumulated in the leaves can be drawn from them to the branch; and the most persistent elements in the leaves are Ca, B, Mn, and silicon.
A gendered analysis of shifts in adaptive water management in the Nile Delta of Egypt
(Report, 2021-03-08) Dessalegn, B.; Abd-Allah, Emman; Salem, S. A.; Swelam, A.
Understanding the logic behind farmers’ decisions to opt for specific adaptive water management practice is important to appreciate the challenges and opportunities they face, and to promote adoption of sustainable water management practices. This study considers gender, temporal, and spatial dimensions of water management that is juxtaposed at various scales. We adapt the Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) framework to our case and use it to contextualize key drivers of change within the micro, meso and macro levels of influence, and to demonstrate their individual as well as interactive effect on farmers’ decisions. We used qualitative data collected through Focus Group Discussions and Key Informant interviews to identify key drivers of change and farmers’ adaptive responses over time. Our findings show that farmers’ choices of adaptive water management are often collectively influenced by changes in the three spheres of influence and the interactions among them. The study highlights the importance of using MLP to identify major drivers of change that should be tackled to improve agricultural water delivery and use to achieve set targets for national food security.
Phosphorus export from two contrasting rural watersheds in the (sub) humid Ethiopian highlands
(Journal Article, 2021-12-16) Sishu, F. K.; Bekele, A. M.; Schmitter, Petra; Tilahun, Seifu A.; Steenhuis, T. S.
Establishing worldwide sustainable and phosphorus efficient cropping systems is urgently needed because the supply of suitable phosphate rock is limited, and excess phosphorus in streams causes eutrophication. One of the impediments in the developing world for sustainable P practices is the lack of studies on P transport and its eventual disposition in the environment. One of these regions with few studies is the Ethiopian Highlands, with permeable volcanic soils. The objective was to establish baseline data on P watershed export in the (sub)humid highlands. Two contrasting watersheds were selected near Lake Tana. For 2 years, stream discharge and sediment, total P, dissolved P, and bioavailable particulate P concentrations were determined at the watershed outlet. The first watershed is the 57 km2 Dangishta, with lava intrusion dikes, forcing subsurface flow through faults to the surface and preventing gully formation. Subsurface flow was half of the 1745 mm annual precipitation, and surface runoff and erosion were minimal. The second watershed is the 9 km2 Robit Bata with 1,420 mm precipitation. The banks of several river banks were slumping. The upper part of the watershed generates saturation excess runoff. A hillslope aquifer in the lower part provided interflow. The average sediment concentrations of 10.5 g L−1 in the stream in Robit Bata (11 times that in Dangishta) reflected the sediments from banks slipping in the stream. The hydrology and the soil loss directly affected the phosphorus export. In Dangishta, the total P concentration averaged 0.5 mg L−1 at the outlet. In Robit Bata, the average total P concentration was 2 mg L−1. The bioavailable particulate P concentration was only twice the concentration in the runoff water. The low phosphorus content of the subsoil slipping in Robit Bata moderated biologically available particulate P at the outlet. Average dissolved P concentrations for both watersheds were around 0.1 mg L−1 in the low range found in temperate climates. It reflects the difference in length of time that phosphorus fertilizers have been applied. Our research concludes that commonly implemented practices such as strengthening river banks and stabilizing gully might not lead to improved water quality in Lake Tana.

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