Improving water productivity of crop-livestock systems of Sub-saharan Africa

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Institutional implications of governance of local common pool resources on livestock water productivity in Ethiopia
(Journal Article, 2011-01) Teklewold, T.; Mapedza, Everisto D.; Amede, Tilahun
Improving water productivity depends on how local communal water and grazing resources are governed. This involves institutional and organizational issues. In the mixed farming systems of the Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia, non-participatory water users’ associations, neglect of traditional water rights, corruption, village power relations, inequitable allocation of irrigated land and free-grazing practice impact the governance of local common pool resources (CPR). Indigenous governance structures for CPR such as the kire are participatory and effective in terms of rule enforcement. Externally initiated governance structures lack acceptance by farmers and sufficient support from local government. In order to improve water productivity in the mixed farming systems, institutional deficiencies need attention and existing indigenous governance structures require recognition and support.
Zai improves nutrient and water productivity in the Ethiopian highlands
(Journal Article, 2011-01) Amede, Tilahun; Menza, M.; Awulachew, Seleshi Bekele
In the East African highlands, crop yields tend to increase with proximity of the farm plots to homesteads. Farmers identified soil erosion as the most detrimental cause of low crop yield in the outfields followed by soil compaction due to livestock trampling. The main objective of this study was to determine whether zai pits (i.e. small water harvesting pits) developed for dryland regions of the Sahel could increase crop yield and water productivity of degraded outfields in high rainfall areas, where mean annual rainfall exceeds 1300mmbut soil water infiltration is reduced by slope, low soil organic matter and hardpans. The pits were enlarged to resist strong runoff flows. The research was conducted over three years from 2004 to 2006. Potatoes and beans were used as test crops. Overall, compared to control plots, the zai pits, in combination with nitrogen (N) inputs, increased potato yields from 500% to 2000% ( p ≤ 0.001). The pits contributed more to increased crop yield than N inputs. Similarly, bean yields from the zai pits were up to 250% higher. Crop water productivity was 300–700% higher with zai pits than with control plots. The income of farmers who used zai pits was up to 20-fold higher than the labour costs required to prepare them. Contrary to conventional wisdom, this study reveals that the major constraint of the outfields is not nutrient deficiency per se rather low soil water holding capacity, which hinders crop growth and efficient utilization of available nutrients.
Livestock water productivity in a water stressed environment in northern Ethiopia
(Journal Article, 2011-01) Mekonnen, S.; Descheemaeker, Katrien K.; Tolera, Adugna; Amede, Tilahun
Agricultural systems of Northern Ethiopia are under pressure from demographic expansion leading to land degradation and increasing water scarcity. Livestock water productivity (LWP) is an important component in improving overall productivity in mixed crop-livestock systems. The objective of the study was to characterize the existing farming system in a typical water stressed environment in the Ethiopian highlands in terms of crop and livestock production and to assess LWP at household level.To this end, the characteristic watershed of Lenche Dima watershed was chosen. An exploratory assessment of LWP variables and potential differences between farmers’ wealth classes was conducted based on a survey of 54 sample households and focus group discussions. LWP was determined as the ratio of beneficial outputs over used water. We used market values of livestock products and services to unify the livestock outputs. Water used to produce the livestock outputs was determined based on water consumption to produce the feed. The overall water used per household for livestock production ranged from 3079 ± 2335 (s.d.) m3 per year to 11 975 ± 4080 (s.d.) m3 per year for poor and better-off households, respectively. If fully valued as fuel and fertilizer, manure contributed an overall 34% of the total financial livestock output, followed by draught power (22%), transport (17%) and milk production (16%). LWP ranged from 0.07 to 0.09 US$ m−3 and was not significantly different between farmers’ wealth classes. The small differences were an indication that all farmer types had very limited access to potential LWP improvements through increased feed quality and quantity, improved animal husbandry and better veterinary care.
Irrigation water productivity as affected by water management in a small-scale irrigation scheme in the Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia
(Journal Article, 2011-01) Demeku, S.; Descheemaeker, Katrien K.; Haileslassie, Amare; Amede, Tilahun
In Ethiopia, irrigation is mainly implemented in small-scale irrigation schemes, which are often characterized by low water productivity. This study reports on the efficiency and productivity of a typical small-scale irrigation scheme in the highlands of the Blue Nile, Ethiopia. Canal water flows and the volume of irrigation water applied were measured at field level. Grain and crop residue biomass and grass biomass production along the canals were also measured. To triangulate the measurements, the irrigation farm management, effects of water logging around irrigation canals, farm water distribution mechanisms, effects of night irrigation and water losses due to soil cracking created by prolonged irrigation were closely observed. The average canal water loss from the main, the secondary and the field canals was 2.58, 1.59 and 0.39 l s−1 100 m−1, representing 4.5, 4.0 and 26% of the total water flow respectively. About 0.05% of the loss was attributed to grass production for livestock, while the rest was lost through evaporation and canal seepage. Grass production for livestock feed had a land productivity of 6190.5 kg ha−1 and a water productivity of 0.82 kg m−3 . Land productivity for straw and grain was 2048 and 770 kg ha−1, respectively, for teff, and 1864 kg ha−1 and 758 kg ha−1, respectively, for wheat. Water productivities of the crops varied from 0.2 to 1.63 kg m−3. A significant volume of water was lost from small-scale irrigation systems mainly because farmers’ water application did not match crop needs. The high price incurred by pumped irrigation positively affected water management by minimizing water losses and forced farmers to use deficit irrigation. Improving water productivity of small-scale irrigation requires integrated interventions including night storage mechanisms, optimal irrigation scheduling, empowerment of farmers to maintain canals and proper irrigation schedules.
Improving water productivity in crop-livestock systems of drought-prone regions: Editorial comment
(Journal Item, 2011-01) Amede, Tilahun; Tarawali, Shirley A.; Peden, Donald G.
Crop-livestock systems in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are mostly rainfall-dependent and based on fragmented marginal lands that are vulnerable to soil erosion, drought and variable weather conditions. The threat of water scarcity in these systems is real, due to expanding demand for food and feed, climate variability and inappropriate land use (Amede et al., 2009). According to recent estimates, farming, industrial and urban needs in developing countries will increase water demand by 40% by 2030 (FAO, 2009). Water shortage is expected to be severe in areas where the amount of rainfall will decrease due to climate change. The lack of capacity of communities living in drought-prone regions to respond to market opportunities, climatic variability and associated water scarcity also results from very low water storage facilities, poverty and limited institutional capacities to efficiently manage the available water resources at local, national and basin scales. The spiral of watershed degradation causes decline in water budgets (Awlachew and Ayana, 2011), decreases soil fertility and reduces farm incomes in SSA (Amede and Taboge, 2007) and reduces crop and livestock water productivity (Descheemaeker et al., 2011). In areas where irrigated agriculture is feasible, there is an increasing demand for water and competition among different users and uses.
Analysis of gaps and possible interventions for improving water productivity in crop livestock systems of Ethiopia
(Journal Article, 2011-01) Descheemaeker, Katrien K.; Amede, Tilahun; Haileslassie, Amare; Bossio, Deborah A.
Low crop and livestock productivities in the mixed farming systems of Ethiopia hamper efforts to meet the increasing food demands from a stressed natural resource base. Important reasons for the low agricultural productivity are water scarcity and poor spatial and temporal rainfall distribution. Although improving agricultural water productivity would safeguard people’s livelihoods and the environment, the lack of information on best bet interventions and strategies to achieve this impedes targeted decision making. Therefore, the aim of this study was to conduct an ex-ante evaluation of the potential effect of selected interventions on livestock water productivity (LWP) in mixed crop-livestock systems. Baseline data were collected from a water scarce area in the Ethiopian highlands. An analysis of productivity gaps and stakeholder interviews helped to identify promising interventions, which were categorized in three groups related to feed, water and animal management. A spreadsheet model was developed that was composed of the various production components of the farming system, their interactions and influencing factors. By linking water use for feed production with livestock products through the energy supplied by the feeds, the potential effect of interventions on LWP could be simulated. The evaluation showed that the various interventions targeting feed, water and animal management could result in LWP improvements ranging from 4 to 94%. Feed and energy water productivity increased particularly with interventions like fertilizer application, and the introduction of fodder trees, concentrates, improved food-feed crops, and soil and water conservation measures. Combining the different interventions led to a stronger improvement than any of the single interventions. The results of the evaluation can inform policy-makers and development actors on which best bets to promote and invest in.
Assessment of the livestock-feed and water nexus across a mixed crop-livestock system’s intensification gradient: An example from the Indo-Ganga basin
(Journal Article, 2011-01) Haileslassie, Amare; Blümmel, Michael; Clement, Floriane; Descheemaeker, Katrien K.; Amede, Tilahun; Samireddypalle, A.; Acharya, Sreedhar; Radha, A.Venkata; Ishaq, S.; Samad, M.; Murty, M.V.R.; Khan, M.A.
Projections suggest that annual per capita water availability in the Indo-Ganga Basin (IGB) will reduce to a level typical for water-stressed areas. Producing more crop and livestock products, per unit of agricultural water invested, is advocated as a key strategy for future food production and environmental security in the basin. The objective of this study was to understand the spatio-temporal dynamics of water requirements for livestock feed production, attendant livestock water productivity (LWP) and implications for the future sustainable use of water resources. We focused on three districts in the IGB representing intensive (higher external inputs, e.g. fertilizer, water) and semi-intensive (limited external input) crop-livestock systems. LWP is estimated based on principles of water accounting and is defined as the ratio of livestock beneficial outputs and services to the water depleted and degraded in producing these. In calculating LWP and crop water productivity (CWP), livestock, land use, land productivity and climatic data were required. We used secondary data sources from the study districts, field observations and discussions with key informants to generate those data sets. Our result showed that the volume of water depleted for livestock feed production varied among the study systems and was highly affected by the type of feed and the attendant agronomic factors (e.g. cropping pattern, yield). LWP value was higher for intensive systems and affected by agricultural water partitioning approaches (harvest index, metaolizable energy). LWP tended to decrease between 1992 and 2003. This can be accounted for by the shift to a feeding regime that depletes more water despite its positive impacts on animal productivity. This is a challenging trend with the advent of and advocacy for producing more agricultural products using the same or lower volume of water input and evokes a need for balanced feeding, by considering the nutritive value, costs and water productivity of feed, and better livestock management to improve LWP.
Assessment of water productivity and entry points for improvement in mixed crop-livestock systems of the Ethiopian highlands
(Journal Article, 2010) Descheemaeker, Katrien K.; Haileslassie, Amare; Amede, Tilahun; Bossio, Deborah A.; Tarawali, Shirley A.
Crop-livestock systems are very important both in terms of area and contribution to people’s livelihoods in the Ethiopian highlands. However, a common problem in these systems is low livestock and crop productivity, which is partly caused by water scarcity and environmental degradation. As water is a key and often limiting input for agriculture and environmental functioning, there is an urgent need to improve water productivity in order to sustain both people’s livelihoods and a healthy environment. Water productivity, generally defined as the ratio of agricultural outputs to the volume of water depleted, measures the ability of agricultural systems to convert water into food. In the crop sector, crop water productivity (CWP) has been investigated for many years. By contrast, livestock water productivity (LWP) is a new concept (Peden et al., 2009), for which reference points, standardized definitions and adequate methods for water partitioning are still in their infancy (Descheemaeker et al., 2010). Also, a systems approach for analyzing water productivity in mixed systems is still to be developed, tested and adapted. This paper therefore examines how water productivity can be assessed in mixed crop-livestock systems, and identifies entry points for water productivity improvement with the wider aim to improve the sustainability of the systems.
Options for increasing livestock water productivity in the Nile basin
(Presentation, 2008-11-17) Peden, Donald G.; Alemayehu, M.; Amede, Tilahun; Faki, H.; Haileslassie, Amare; Herrero, Mario; Mpairwe, D.R.; Taddesse, G.; Breugel, P. van
Effects of integrated watershed management on livestock-water productivity in water scarce areas in Ethiopia
(Journal Article, 2010-01) Descheemaeker, Katrien K.; Mapedza, Everisto D.; Amede, Tilahun; Ayalneh, W.
In the water scarce Lenche Dima watershed in the northern Ethiopian highlands community based integrated watershed management was implemented to fight land degradation, raise agricultural productivity and improve farmers’ livelihoods. The effects of two interventions, namely exclosures and water harvesting structures, were assessed based on data from farmers’ interviews, measurements of feed biomass production, and estimates of energy production and requirements. Water used for livestock feed production was obtained through simple soil water balance modelling. By protecting 40% of the rangelands, the water productivity of the feed increased by about 20%. This indicated that exclosure establishment could lead to similar improvements in livestock water productivity (LWP, defined as the ratio of livestock benefits over the water used in producing these). Water harvesting structures ensured year-round water availability in the homestead, which resulted in less energy used for walking to drinking points. A considerable amount of energy was thus saved, which could be used for livestock production and improved animal health without additional water use. Besides restoring regulating and supporting ecosystem services, both interventions led to a more efficient use of the scarce water resources for biomass and livestock production.
Three ways to improve water productivity in Zimbabwe
(Poster, 2010-04-14) Amede, Tilahun; Descheemaeker, Katrien K.; Mapedza, Everisto D.; Masikati, Patricia; Munyaradzi, M.; Sibanda, A.; Nkomboni, D.; Homann-Kee Tui, Sabine; Rooyen, Andre F. van
Three ways to improve livestock water productivity in Ethiopia
(Poster, 2010-04-14) Descheemaeker, Katrien K.; Amede, Tilahun; Mapedza, Everisto D.
Improving livestock water productivity in Indo-Ganga Basin of India
(Poster, 2010-04-14) Haileslassie, Amare; Blümmel, Michael; Clement, Floriane; Descheemaeker, Katrien K.; Amede, Tilahun
Livestock water productivity in mixed crop–livestock farming systems of the Blue Nile basin: assessing variability and prospects for improvement
(Journal Article, 2009-10) Haileslassie, Amare; Peden, Donald G.; Gebreselassie, S.; Amede, Tilahun; Descheemaeker, Katrien K.
Water scarcity is a major factor limiting food production. Improving Livestock Water Productivity (LWP) is one of the approaches to address those problems. LWP is defined as the ratio of livestock’s beneficial outputs and services to water depleted in their production. Increasing LWP can help achieve more production per unit of water depleted. In this study we assess the spatial variability of LWP in three farming systems (rice-based, millet-based and barley-based) of the Gumera watershed in the highlands of the Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia. We collected data on land use, livestock management and climatic variables using focused group discussions, field observation and secondary data. We estimated the water depleted by evapotranspiration (ET) and beneficial animal products and services and then calculated LWP. Our results suggest that LWP is comparable with crop water productivity at watershed scales. Variability of LWP across farming systems of the Gumera watershed was apparent and this can be explained by farmers’ livelihood strategies and prevailing biophysical conditions. In view of the results there are opportunities to improve LWP: improved feed sourcing, enhancing livestock productivity and multiple livestock use strategies can help make animal production more water productive. Attempts to improve agricultural water productivity, at system scale, must recognize differences among systems and optimize resources use by system components.
Improving water productivity in mixed crop-livestock farming systems of sub-Saharan Africa
(Journal Article, 2010-05) Descheemaeker, Katrien K.; Amede, Tilahun; Haileslassie, Amare
In sub-Saharan Africa problems associated with water scarcity are aggravated by increasing demands for food and water, climate change and environmental degradation. Livestock keeping, an important livelihood strategy for smallholder farmers in Africa, is a major consumer of water, and its water consumption is increasing with increasing demands for livestock products. At the same time, current low returns from livestock keeping limit its contribution to livelihoods, threaten environmental health and aggravate local conflicts. The objectives of this review are to: (1) synthesize available knowledge in the various components of the livestock and water sectors in sub-Saharan Africa, (2) analyze livestock–water interactions and (3) identify promising strategies and technological interventions for improved livestock water productivity (LWP) using a framework for mixed crop–livestock systems. The interventions are grouped in three categories related to feed, water, and animal management. Feed related strategies for improving LWP include choosing feed types carefully, improving feed quality, increasing feed water productivity, and implementing grazing management practices. Water management for higher LWP comprises water conservation, watering point management, and integration of livestock production in irrigation schemes. Animal management strategies include improving animal health and careful animal husbandry. Evidence indicates that successful uptake of interventions can be achieved if institutions, policies, and gender are considered. Critical research and development gaps are identified in terms of methodologies for quantifying water productivity at different scales and improving integration between agricultural sectors.
Coping with climate change: water productivity perspectives
(Poster, 2009-03-23) Haileslassie, Amare; Hagos, Fitsum; Awulachew, Seleshi Bekele; Amede, Tilahun; Descheemaeker, Katrien K.; Peden, Donald G.; Blümmel, Michael; Gebreselassie, S.
Enhancing water productivity in crop-livestock systems of SSA: minimizing trade-offs and maximizing benefits
(Presentation, 2009-12-01) Amede, Tilahun; Descheemaeker, Katrien K.; Mapedza, Everisto D.
Livestock water productivity in the Blue Nile Basin: assessment of farm scale heterogeneity
(Journal Article, 2009) Haileslassie, Amare; Peden, Donald G.; Gebreselassie, S.; Amede, Tilahun; Wagnew, A.; Taddesse, G.
A recent study of the livestock water productivity (LWP), at higher spatial scales in the Blue Nile Basin, indicated strong variability across regions. To get an insight into the causes of this variability, we examined the effect of farm households’ access to productive resources (e.g. land, livestock) on LWP in potato–barley, barley–wheat, teff–millet and rice farming systems of the Gumera watershed (in the Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia). We randomly selected 180 farm households. The sizes of the samples, in each system, were proportional to the respective system’s area. Then we grouped the samples, using a participatory wealth ranking method, into three wealth groups (rich, medium and poor) and used structured and pre-tested questionnaires to collect data on crops and livestock management and applied reference evapotranspiration (ET0) and crop coefficient (Kc) approaches to estimate depleted (evapotranspiration) water in producing animal feed and food crops. Then, we estimated LWP as a ratio of livestock’s beneficial outputs to water depleted. Our results suggest strong variability of LWP across the different systems: ranging between 0.3 and 0.6 US$ m-3 year-1. The tendency across different farming systems was comparable with results from previous studies at higher spatial scales. The range among different wealth groups was wider (0.1 to 0.6 US$ m-3 year-1) than among the farming systems. This implies that aggregating water productivity (to a system scale) masks hotspots and bright spots. Our result also revealed a positive trend between water productivity (LWP and crop water productivity, CWP) and farm households’ access to resources. Thus, we discuss our findings in relation to poverty alleviation and integrated land and water management to combat unsustainable water management practices in the Blue Nile Basin.
Enabling the uptake of livestock-water productivity interventions in the crop-livestock systems of sub-Saharan Africa
(Journal Article, 2009) Amede, Tilahun; Geheb, Kim; Douthwaite, Boru
Livestock–water productivity (LWP) refers to a set of innovations that could contribute towards reducing the amount of water needed per unit of output generated. But what does it take to get these ideas adopted by livestock keepers in crop–livestock systems? In this paper, we treat LWP as an innovation, and consider in what ways it may be introduced and/or developed among the crop–livestock agricultural systems by drawing on successful examples of change. In the first part of this paper, we introduce relevant tenets of the innovation systems literature, and introduce a three-component conceptual framework for the adoption of LWP technologies. In the second part, we describe three successful cases of resources use change. In the final section, we identify what we consider to be necessary components in successful change, and relate these to LWP. We argue that, in the under-regulated crop–livestock systems of eastern Africa, key areas for focus include social institutions, political systems, gender and leadership.
Livestock and water interactions in mixed crop-livestock farming systems of sub-Saharan Africa: interventions for improved productivity
(Working Paper, 2009-02-24) Descheemaeker, Katrien K.; Amede, Tilahun; Haileslassie, Amare
In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), the increasing competition for water between various sectors is aggravated by growing demands for water, climate change and environmental degradation. One of the major consumers of water is livestock keeping, which is an important livelihood strategy for smallholder farmers in Africa. The water consumption for livestock production is currently increasing with the growing demands for livestock products. On the other hand, current low returns from livestock, limit its contribution to livelihoods, threaten environmental health and aggravate local conflicts. The objectives of this review are to (1) bring together the available knowledge in the various components of the livestock and water sectors, (2) identify promising strategies and interventions to improve the situation using the “livestock water productivity” (LWP) concept, and (3) identify critical research and development gaps. Improvements in LWP can lead to a positive impact on poverty reduction, resilience and environmental health, provided that interventions are well-targeted, community innovation and empowerment is achieved and appropriate dissemination and communication lead to awareness and adoption. Promising interventions are grouped in two domains. In the biophysical domain, numerous interventions related to feed, water and animal management can be applied to increase LWP. These should be complemented and integrated with interventions in the socio-political-economic domain. Enhancing the capacity of local institutions, improving market incentives and facilitating socioeconomic arrangements form part of the institutional improvements. A conducive policy framework, taking into account equity and gender and geared towards problem-solving local policies, improvements in infrastructure, price signals and land tenure systems, is a prerequisite for the successful application of the LWP concept. However, for the LWP concept to be widely applicable, knowledge gaps have to be filled, in terms of methodologies for quantifying water productivity and integrating animal, herd, farm, water catchment and basin scales. This paper suggests approaches for the integration of technological, policy and institutional interventions that would contribute to making the LWP concept operational.

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