Rural-Urban Linkages
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Item Controlled Environment Agriculture for sustainable development: A call for investment and innovation(Brief, 2021-12-01) CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and EcosystemsControlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) is the production of plants, fish, insects or animals inside structures, such as greenhouses and buildings, in controlled conditions. In a rapidly urbanizing world, CEA can contribute to sustainable development, e.g. through reduced use of land, water and inputs. There is a need for innovation in policy, technology and business practices to scale up CEA in the Global South sustainably and equitably.Item Women’s work is never done: Lifting the gendered burden of firewood collection and household energy use in Kenya(Journal Article, 2021-07) Njenga, M.; Gitau, J. K.; Mendum, R.In rural Kenya, firewood is used for cooking and heating by 9 out of every 10 households due to its affordability, availability and convenience. This study was carried out using social and natural science methods to understand women’s energy burdens and the reasons for the persistent use of firewood. Firewood remains the main source of energy even when multiple fuels are used (“fuel stacking”). Collecting firewood from forests limits women’s earning potential and has a negative impact on their well-being although it is a source of income for some as they sell part of what they gather. In these modern times no one would expect that the prospect of freezing to death due to lack of firewood in the tropical highlands worries aging women, but it does. Women’s burden of collecting firewood could be lifted by bringing firewood closer through use of residues from trees on farms and burning it in more efficient cookstoves although there may be gender-specific barriers for some women. Income from sale of two timber trees was adequate to meet the cost of labour for pruning trees on-farm and carrying home a year’s supply of firewood for families without members who can do the work. This information is useful towards improving rural women’s wellbeing and the sustainability of cooking energy. Knowledge gaps still exist in nature, causes and impacts of energy burdens and solutions that work for the people.Item An assessment of controlled environment agriculture (CEA) in low- and lower-middle income countries in Asia and Africa, and its potential contribution to sustainable development(Report, 2021-11-01) Halliday, J.; Kaufmann, R. von; Herath, K.V.For Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) to make a meaningful contribution to SAI in low- and lower-middle income countries, there is a need for investment in research, capacity development, enterprise initiation, scaling, and creation of enabling environments (through policies at national and sub-national levels). To attract investment and justify policy change, more information is needed on the potential contribution of CEA to sustainable development, and where, how, by whom, and for whom various technologies might be best deployed. The purpose of this report is: • to identify which CEA technologies merit investment, and under which conditions, to advance SAI in Africa and Asia; • to make recommendations concerning investment in CEA technologies.Item Regional drought monitoring for managing water security in South Asia(Conference Paper, 2021) Amarnath, Giriraj; Ghosh, Surajit; Alahacoon, Niranga; Nakada, Toru; Rao, K.V.; Sikka, AlokDrought is the most complex climate-related disaster issue in South Asia and has affected 1.46 billion people with an economic loss of over 7 billion USD in the last 56 years. South Asia is challenged with water, food, and energy security due to growing populations, incomes, resource degradation, and vulnerability to climate change. Monitoring of drought and associated agricultural production deficits using meteorological and agricultural indices is an essential component for drought preparedness. Remote sensing offers near real-time monitoring of drought conditions and IWMI’s has implemented South Asia Drought Monitoring System (SADMS) in 2014 as an online platform for drought early warning and support in drought declaration. This chapter explores the use of composite drought indices implemented in Google Earth Engine (GEE) and evaluates the crop yield variability during drought years. The study provides a rapid overview of drought-prone conditions that could enhance the present capabilities of early warning systems and enable science based policies for addressing water security in the agriculture sector and develop a drought response plan between water supply and demand, significantly increasing the vulnerability of regions to damaging impacts of drought events.Item Compost quality and markets are pivotal for sustainability in circular food-nutrient systems: a case study of Sri Lanka(Journal Article, 2021-11-19) Roy, E. D.; Esham, M.; Jayathilake, Nilanthi; Otoo, M.; Koliba, C.; Wijethunga, I. B.; Fein-Cole, M. J.Sustainable management of municipal solid waste (MSW) is a critical issue around the world, especially in South Asia where waste generation is expected to double by 2050. Closing the food-nutrient cycle through composting biodegradable MSW has the potential to meet human needs, including sanitation and food security, while protecting the environment. We use an interdisciplinary case study approach including systems thinking to assess Sri Lanka’s national MSW composting system, which primarily receives residential and commercial food waste. We embed quantitative compost quality analysis and interviews at 20 composting facilities within a broader qualitative assessment informed by ~60 stakeholders in total. This approach yields insights on how institutional, economic, social, and biophysical aspects of the system are interrelated, and how challenges and solutions can create undesirable and desirable cascading effects, respectively. Such dynamics can create risks of composting facility failure and unintended consequences, diminishing the chances of achieving a sustainable circular food–nutrient system. Compost quality, which was variable, plays a pivotal role within the system—a function of program design and implementation, as well as a determinant of value capture in a circular economy. We make several recommendations to inform future efforts to sustainably manage biodegradable MSW using composting, drawing on our case study of Sri Lanka and prior case studies from other nations. Key among these is the need for increased emphasis on compost product quality and markets in policy and program design and implementation. Targeted measures are needed to improve waste separation, boost compost quality, effectively use compost standards, encourage compost market development, ringfence the revenues generated at municipal compost plants, and identify efficient modes of compost distribution. Such measures require adequate space and infrastructure for composting, resource investment, local expertise to guide effective system management, strong links with the agriculture sector, and continued political support.Item A Guide to Scaling Resource Recovery & Reuse (RRR) Business Innovations in Africa and Asia(Report, 2021-11-01) Danso, George K.; Drechsel, Pay; Cofie, Olufunke O.Domestic waste is a continuously increasing urbanization challenge. Over the last decade, researchers with the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) have developed, tested and implemented (e.g. as PPP) a variety of RRR technologies and business models that simultaneously reduce the waste burden and support the return of resources like crop nutrients, biosolids and reclaimed water to agricultural production. The review compared over 20 scaling models and tools to identify those which best support the RRR innovations.Item Reuse of food waste as animal feed in Sri Lanka(Conference Paper, 2021-10-15) Jayathilake, Nilanthi; Aheeyar, Mohamed M.M.; Drechsel, PayThe use of food waste (FW) from food services as animal feed through informal agreements has been in practice for many years in Sri Lanka. However, data to show the scale of this practice are inadequate. This paper aims to study the extent of FW diverted to piggeries and the opportunities and challenges in reusing FW as animal feed. The data were collected via telephonic survey from 24 piggery farmers in the Western Province in May 2020. Results revealed that 50% of farmers were rearing 100-300 pigs. Farmers used FW as a major feed source to satisfy 82% of total feed requirement on an average. About 40% of the farmers collected the FW from multiple sources such as hotels, restaurants and canteens. Given that the piggery farms are located in peri-urban areas, the average distance traveled by the farmers is 38 km up and down which indicated the value of FW for them. FW was supplied mostly free of charge; however, 26% of the farmers pay LKR 2 to 40/kg when supplied by intermediaries. FW was collected daily, and the amount collected by the farmers varies 50 to 10000 kg/day depending on demand and supply, with 75% of farmers collected less than 1000 kg/day.Item A review on occurrence of emerging pollutants in waters of the MENA region(Journal Article, 2021-12) Haddaoui, I.; Mateo-Sagasta, JavierLittle is known about the occurrence of emerging pollutants (EPs) in waters in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region despite the extensive use of low-quality water there. Available data dealing with the sources, occurrence and removal of EPs within the MENA region in different categories of water is collected, presented and analyzed in this literature review. According to the collected database, the occurrence and removal efficiency of EPs in the water matrix in the MENA region is available, respectively, for 13 and six countries of the 18 in total; no available data is registered for the rest. Altogether, 290 EPs have been observed in different water matrices across the MENA countries, stemming mainly from industrial effluents, agricultural practices, and discharge or reuse of treated wastewater (TWW). Pharmaceutical compounds figure among the most frequently reported compounds in wastewater, TWW, surface water, and drinking water. Nevertheless, pesticides are the most frequently detected pollutants in groundwater. Worryingly, 57 cases of EPs have been reported in different fresh and drinking waters, exceeding World Health Organization (WHO) and European Commission (EC) thresholds. Overall, pharmaceuticals, organic compounds, and pesticides are the most concerning EP groups. The review revealed the ineffectiveness of treatment processes used in the region to remove EPs. Negative removals of some EPs such as carbamazepine, erythromycin, and sulfamethoxazole were recorded, suggesting their possible accumulation or release during treatment. This underlines the need to set in place and strengthen control measures, treatment procedures, standards, and policies for such pollutants in the region.Item Assessing risk in times of climate change and COVID-19: city region food system of Tamale, Ghana(Book, 2021-10-01) FAO; RUAF Foundation; International Water Management InstituteThis factsheet provides information on the general knowledge collected by the city region food system (CRFS) project in its phase 2 regarding the assessment of risks for the CRFS of Tamale. The data was collected through literature review and stakeholder consultations.Item Gender dimensions of solid and liquid waste management for reuse in agriculture in Asia and Africa(Report, 2021-10-21) Taron, Avinandan; Drechsel, Pay; Gebrezgabher, Solomie A.This report examines social equality aspects related to resource recovery through solid waste composting and wastewater irrigation. The report shows that women are represented in greatest numbers at the base of the recycling chain, most often as informal waste pickers and as sorters of recyclables with limited access to resources and upward mobility. Despite a wide gender gap in the solid waste and sanitation sectors, women play a key role in both municipal waste reduction and food safety where irrigation water is unsafe. Analyzing the gender dimension is important for understanding household responses to recycling programs, differences between the formal and informal sectors as well as along the waste-to-resource value chain from collection to treatment and reuse. The report stresses the important role of women in household waste management, including waste segregation, and the power of women-dominated waste picker associations, where the informal sector plays an essential role alongside the formal sector.Item Food waste measurement as a tool for prevention and reduction: A case study from a hotel in Colombo, Sri Lanka(Brief, 2021-09-28) CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems; International Water Management InstituteThe amount of food waste generated in Local Authority areas of Sri Lanka ranges between 50% and 76% of the total municipal solid waste, with an average of 56% (FAO and IWMI 2021a). The total food waste generated is estimated to be nearly 4,000 tons/day (Arachchige et al. 2019; FAO and IWMI 2021b). In 2020, a study conducted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) focusing on three major waste disposal centers in the Western Province of Sri Lanka – Karadiyana, Kerawalapitiya and Kaduwela – revealed that about 724 tons of the total waste generated in a day is food waste (i.e., 55% of total waste).Item Safe and sustainable business models for water reuse in aquaculture in developing countries(Report, 2021) Amoah, Philip; Gebrezgabher, Solomie A.; Drechsel, PayWastewater-fed aquaculture has a long history, especially in Asia. This report examines three empirical cases of integrated wastewater treatment and aquaculture production. From an aquaculture entrepreneur’s perspective, the combination of fish farming and wastewater treatment in common waste stabilization ponds allows significant savings on capital (pond infrastructure) and running costs (wastewater supporting fish feed). On the other hand, the treatment plant owner will have the benefit of a partner taking over plant maintenance. Given the importance of food safety and related perceptions, the report is focusing on innovative business models where the marketed fish is not in direct contact with the treated wastewater, but only the brood stock or fish feed. The financial analysis of the presented systems shows profitable options for the fish farmer, operational and in part capital cost recovery for the treatment plant, and as the treatment plant operators can stop charging households a sanitation fee, eventually a triple-win situation for both partners and the served community.Item Beyond just adding women: towards gender transformative food systems(Journal Article, 2020-07-01) Joshi, Deepa; Gallant, Bryce; Hakhu, ArunimaItem A call for transformative actions on gender and inequality. Editorial(Journal Item, 2020-07-01) Halliday, J.; Joshi, Deepa; Young, L.; Veenhuizen, R. vanItem Crops and farmers’ response to application of fecal sludge derived - Fortifer™ in different agro-ecological zones in Ghana(Journal Article, 2021-09) Nartey, Eric Gbenatey; Cofie, Olufunke O.; Gebrezgabher, Solomie A.; Nikiema, JosianeFecal sludge (FS)-derived fertilizer material, Fortifer™ was used in farmers’ field to cultivate different crops under varying soil and agro-climatic conditions in Ghana. The aim was to (1) create awareness among smallholder farmers for widespread use of Fortifer™ (2) observe the response of crops to Fortifer™ application by farmers in different agro-ecological zones (3) obtain farmers feedback on the FS-derived product to enhance further dissemination across the country. In total 95 farmers in six locations participated in the farmer-led pilots. Fortifer™ containing up to 3.0% nitrogen, 3.6% phosphorus, 1.3% potassium and 44.3% organic matter was applied to tomato, rice, maize and pepper in comparison to inorganic fertilizers at recommended rates. Subsequently, farmers’ perception of, and willingness to use the product were studied. Crop yield was significantly higher (p = 0.05) in the Fortifer™ plots compared to the inorganic fertilizer plots for all the selected crops. Yield was 12% higher for tomato, 27% for rice and maize and 30% for pepper under the Fortifer™ plots. Farmers indicated that, nutrient content was the most important factor they consider when making fertilizer purchasing decision.Item Business models for urban food waste prevention, redistribution, recovery and recycling(Report, 2021) Senanayake, Dehaja; Reitemeier, Maren; Thiel, Felix; Drechsel, PayA necessary extension of the concept of Resource Recovery and Reuse with an even higher priority is the prevention and reduction of waste. One concern, in particular, is food waste, which constitutes the largest share of human waste. Target 12.3 of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is to ‘halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses, by 2030’. For this report, over 400 businesses were analyzed to identify common approaches and business models to address the food waste challenge. The business models are presented under seven categories – measurement, redistribution, resell, value addition, responsible waste collection, resource recovery, and recycling – with a special focus on their application potential to the Global South.Item Africa Agriculture Transformation Scorecard: performance and lessons. Southern African Development Community (SADC)(Brief, 2021-05-01) Matchaya, Greenwell C.; Nhlengethwa, Sibusiso; Panduleni, E.; Greffiths, Ikhothatseng Jacob; Fakudze, BhekiweThis brief highlights the SADC region’s performance in the second BR and analyzes challenges faced and lessons learned by the region. The brief also reviews policy and programmatic changes in the SADC region induced by lessons from the inaugural 2017 and concludes by highlighting required policy actions for SADC to meet Malabo commitments by 2025.Item Life-cycle costs of a resource-oriented sanitation system and implications for advancing a circular economy approach to sanitation(Journal Article, 2021-07) Carrard, N.; Jayathilake, Nilanthi; Willetts, J.Implementing a circular economy approach to sanitation requires knowledge of the costs to construct, operate and maintain resource-oriented systems. Yet the dearth of data on costs of urban sanitation in general, and resource-oriented systems in particular, limit opportunities to progress sustainable sanitation in low- and middle-income countries. This paper contributes empirical data on the life-cycle costs of a resource-oriented sanitation system in urban Sri Lanka, addressing a gap in evidence about how much it costs, and who pays, for a system that integrates fecal sludge management with nutrient capture and reuse. Costs across the system life-cycle were analyzed according to: (i) cost type; (ii) phases of the sanitation chain; and (iii) distribution between actors. Over a 25-year lifespan, the system had an annualized cost of USD 2.8/person or USD 11/m3 of septage treated. Revenue from co-compost sales covered reuse-related costs plus 8% of present value costs for other phases of the sanitation chain. Findings affirm both the potential for resource-oriented sanitation to generate revenue, and the need for substantial complementary investment in the overall system. The system was found to be reliant on household investment, yet financially viable from the service provider perspective with revenue from desludging services (89%) and co-compost sales (11%) that exceeded costs over the system lifespan and in most years. The analysis of total costs, financial perspectives, and reuse specifics contributes critical evidence to inform policy and planning that supports a purposeful and equitable transition towards circular economy approaches to sanitation.Item Faecal sludge management in Africa: socioeconomic aspects and human and environmental health implications(Report, 2021-01-01) United Nations Environment Programme; International Water Management InstituteItem The cultural economy of human waste reuse: Perspectives from peri-urban Karnataka, India(Journal Article, 2021-05-01) Burt, Z.; Prasad, C. S. S.; Drechsel, Pay; Ray, I.Safely managed waste reuse may be a sustainable way to protect human health and livelihoods in agrarian-based countries without adequate sewerage. The safe recovery and reuse of fecal sludge-derived fertilizer (FSF) has become an important policy discussion in low-income economies as a way to manage urban sanitation to benefit peri-urban agriculture. But what drives the user acceptance of composted fecal sludge? We develop a preference-ranking model to understand the attributes of FSF that contribute to its acceptance in Karnataka, India. We use this traditionally economic modeling method to uncover cultural practices and power disparities underlying the waste economy. We model farmowners and farmworkers separately, as the choice to use FSF as an employer versus as an employee is fundamentally different. We find that farmers who are willing to use FSF prefer to conceal its origins from their workers and from their own caste group. This is particularly the case for caste-adhering, vegetarian farmowners. We find that workers are open to using FSF if its attributes resemble cow manure, which they are comfortable handling. The waste economy in rural India remains shaped by caste hierarchies and practices, but these remain unacknowledged in policies promoting sustainable ‘business’ models for safe reuse. Current efforts under consideration toward formalizing the reuse sector should explicitly acknowledge caste practices in the waste economy, or they may perpetuate the size and scope of the caste-based informal sector.