CIAT Working Papers

Permanent URI for this collectionhttps://hdl.handle.net/10568/35714

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Returns to food and agricultural R&D; Investments worldwide, 1958-2015
(Working Paper, 2016-08) Hurley, Terrance; Pardey, Philip G.; Rao, Xudong; Andrade, Robert Santiago
Zvi Griliches published the first formal economic estimate of the rates of return to food and agricultural R&D in the Journal of Political Economy more than half a century ago. Since then many economists have published a large number of similar estimates. The consensus that has emerged from this vast body of work is that these rates of return have been exceptionally high regardless of the type of research (e.g., basic or applied), research focus (e.g., maize, wheat, rice, horticultural crops, livestock, or natural resources), or who performed the research. Yet, even with such overwhelming evidence of high rates of return, growth in public R&D spending has slowed worldwide and especially in rich countries (Pardey et al. 2016). Although agricultural commodity prices have fallen from their 2010-12 peaks, there remains widespread concern about the ability of global food supplies to meet projected demand growth. Nonetheless, current trends in public R&D spending portend slower agricultural productivity growth that is particularly disconcerting.
Livestock policies in Son La Province, Vietnam - a review
(Working Paper, 2020) Dung, Pham Van; Savelli, Adam; Mai Thanh Tu; Hung Nguyen-Viet; Le Thi Thanh Huyen; Douxchamps, Sabine
Since the market-oriented Doi Moi reforms of the 1980s and 1990s, Vietnam’s livestock sector has experienced rapid growth. Although policies have been implemented at the national and provincial levels to guide this growth in a sustainable manner, blind spots and implementation gaps remain. Through a review of policy documents, grey literature, peer-reviewed journal articles, and key informant interviews, this research seeks to summarize livestock-related policies at the national and provincial levels in Son La, Vietnam. Policies related to land-use, livestock feed, animal breed development, credit provision, epidemiology, agricultural extensions services, public investment, and sectoral master planning are examined. Based on this review, the authors recommend greater support for smaller actors in Son La’s livestock value chains, mainly in the form of additional research and development, increased credit provision and agricultural insurance, improved agricultural extension services, and strengthened local processing capacity. These policy interventions and investments, among others, will be critical to achieving the government’s ambitious livestock production targets over the coming decade. Notably, more robust public intervention and support is required to unlock this growth. Additional funding for locallevel Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) initiatives and improved coordination between its national and provincial offices will be a key determinant in achieving sustainable intensification in Son La’s livestock sector.
El rol de las instituciones en la investigación y difusión de tecnologías agropecuarias en Colombia: El caso de los forrajes mejorados
(Working Paper, 2020) Enciso, Karen; Díaz, Manuel Francisco; Triana Ángel, Natalia; Burkart, Stefan
Climate change in the Andes: predictions, perceptions and adaptation by peruvian rice farmers
(Working Paper, 2020-12) Useche, Pilar; Anglade, Boaz; Muriel, Juliana; Twyman, Jennifer
Rice cultivation in Peru exemplifies the complex nature of the interaction between changing climatic conditions and households’ decisions on how to cope with these changes given their constraints and perceptions. In this study, we look at this interaction, focusing on small-scale household farmers that depend on rice production for their livelihoods. We first examine men’s and women’s perceptions of climatic changes and compare them to aggregate and weather station observations of changes in climatic indicators. Second, we examine the various adaptation practices used by rice farmers to cope with climate change, and what determines these practices using a multivariate probit analysis.
COVID-19 y el sector ganadero bovino en Colombia: Desarrollos actuales y potenciales, impactos y opciones de mitigación
(Working Paper, 2020-05) Burkart, Stefan; Díaz, Manuel Francisco; Enciso-Valencia, Karen; Urrea Benítez, José Luis; Charry-Camacho, Andrés; Triana Ángel, Natalia
La crisis ocasionada por la pandemia del COVID-19 está afectando la ganadería bovina en Colombia. Los primeros impactos y las medidas de mitigación a corto plazo se han hecho visibles en todos los eslabones de las cadenas de valor de carne y leche. Aunque la magnitud total de la emergencia se verá con el paso del tiempo, se vislumbran en su mayoría impactos negativos, que afectarán el rendimiento de las cadenas de valor mencionadas en el futuro cercano. Pero no todo es adverso: pueden observarse también tendencias positivas, algunas de las cuales ayudarán a sobrellevar la crisis, y contribuirán en la consolidación de un sistema alimentario más resistente. Las preferencias de los consumidores se orientarán hacia una mejor seguridad alimentaria, trazabilidad, bienestar animal y sostenibilidad. El sector deberá comprender e impulsar la formalización de la cadena de valor y la comunicación con el consumidor. La transformación del sector primario hacia una mayor sostenibilidad y eficiencia se hace cada vez más urgente, no sólo para aumentar la resiliencia en tiempos de crisis (como en la emergencia actual de COVID-19), sino también para enfrentar los efectos agravantes del cambio climático y combatir la desigualdad. La digitalización y la virtualización se han convertido en medios importantes durante la crisis en todos los eslabones de las cadenas de valor, creando oportunidades para aumentar de manera sostenible la eficiencia del sector. La investigación puede desempeñar un papel fundamental en el análisis y la comprensión de los impactos planteados por la actual emergencia, proporcionando tecnologías y recomendaciones para una rápida recuperación, así como una correcta construcción de sistemas alimentarios resilientes. Este documento sirve como guía para comprender los desarrollos actuales, los impactos y las medidas de mitigación relacionadas con la pandemia del COVID-19. También proporciona una perspectiva sobre los posibles impactos futuros y propone algunas medidas de mitigación con el ánimo de guiar a los tomadores de decisiones a preparar mejor al sector para posibles dificultades.
COVID-19 and the bovine livestock sector in Colombia: Current and potential developments, impacts and mitigation options
(Working Paper, 2020-05) Burkart, Stefan; Díaz, Manuel Francisco; Enciso-Valencia, Karen; Urrea Benítez, José Luis; Charry-Camacho, Andrés; Triana Ángel, Natalia
The COVID-19 crisis is affecting the bovine livestock sector in Colombia. First impacts and short-term mitigation measures are already visible in all links of the beef and dairy value chains. The full magnitude of the crisis is not yet visible but most impacts already are or will be negative and will affect the beef and dairy value chain’s performance in the near future. However, positive trends are also visible and some will endure the crisis and help building a more resilient food system for the future. Consumer preferences will change towards more food safety, traceability, animal welfare and sustainability and the sector will need to understand this and push value chain formalization and consumer communication. The transformation of the primary sector towards more sustainability and efficiency is becoming urgent, not only to increase resilience during times of crisis (as in the actual COVID-19 situation), but also to face the aggravating effects of climate change and combat inequality. Digitalization and virtualization have become important means during the crisis in all links of the value chains, creating opportunities for sustainably increasing sector efficiency. Research can play a fundamental role in analyzing and understanding the impacts posed by the current crisis, providing technologies and recommendations for recovery, and developing solutions for building resilient food systems. This document serves as a guide to understand current developments, impacts and mitigation measures related to the COVID-19 pandemic. It also provides an outlook on potential future impacts and suggestions for mitigation options that can help policyand decision-makers in preparing the sector better for future crises
Greenhouse gas emissions from piggery and biogas digesters in the Red River Delta of Vietnam
(Working Paper, 2019-12) Dung Van Pham; Hoan Duong Cong; Arango, Jacobo; Nghia Tran Dai; Kien Nguyen Tri; Arévalo, Ashly; Douxchamps, Sabine
High demand for pork consumption in Vietnam has led to a shift of pig production systems from smallholder to industrial-scale farms, particularly in the Red River Delta. This production intensification also produces massive manure and urine quantities, leading to water, air, and soil pollution. The use of biogas plants has been seen as efficient to achieve in the same time a decrease in pollution, and a provision of biogas resources and bio-organic fertilizers. However, increasing pig head density has been causing great pressure on biogas digesters, as their size is not big enough for treatments anymore. Inappropriate utilization and management of biogas digesters can not only cause losses from pig wastes, but also contributes to increase greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). This case study aims to identify the role and contributions of biogas digesters to better manage the sources of GHG emissions from pig wastes for different types of pig farms. Four provinces of the Red River Delta were selected to test the pig waste management efficiency of biogas digesters and measure GHG emissions from these systems. The findings show that CO2, CH4 and N2O emission rates from pig manure are at least twice as much what is allowed under the Vietnam national technical regulation on ambient air quality. However, the GHGs emission rate does not significantly differ between smallholder and industrial-scale farms in the four surveyed provinces. Sampling position (between inside piggeries and outside the outlet of biogas digesters) did not affect significantly GHG emissions rate. These results confirm that the pig waste management of biogas digesters for both smallholder and industrial-scale pig farms is not efficient and that efforts need to be invested to mitigate GHG emissions in pig production. Reducing pig density per piggery is highly recommended. The modification of biogas digester structure to separate solid pig manure and urine should also be considered. Otherwise, the application of other alternative aerobic or anaerobic digestion technologies should also be encouraged and promoted. Biogas digesters in pig production have a significant role to play in Vietnam government’s mitigation strategies, as well as from the perspective of biosafety and animal husbandry policies.
Reflection on the use of mobile phones for monitoring gender indicators related to climate-smart agriculture practices
(Working Paper, 2019-12) García, María Alejandra; Orentlicher, Natalie; Twyman, Jennifer; Eitzinger, Anton; Bonilla, Osana
Monitoring and Learning (M&L) systems are increasingly being requested to measure gender indicators in the context of agricultural interventions. This study reflects on the feasibility of using cellphones to collect data for monitoring gender indicators related to the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices through call-based surveys. The study was conducted in the context of the development of an M&L system for the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food Security. In this case, the approach is used to understand if and how a climate smart agriculture practice impacts the gender division of labor, control over resources and benefits, and participation in decision-making. We reflect on the constraints and aspects that enable the development of monitoring gender indicators related with CSA practices. In our reflection, we identify five challenges related to survey design and sampling: choosing which indicators can be monitored, survey design and question wording, response rates of men and women, identifying respondents, and how cellphones impact sample selection. Each of these issues should be considered when using cellphones to monitor gender indicators in a development project.
Green manure cover crops in Benin and Western Kenya - A review.
(Working Paper, 2019-11) Kinyua, Michael; Cao Diogo, Rodrigue V.; Sibomana, Jean; Bolo, Peter Omondi; Gbedjissokpa, Mariette Gloria; Mukiri, Jessica; Mukalama, John; Paul, Birthe K.; Sommer, Rolf; Kihara, Job Maguta
Adoption of soil carbon enhancing practices and their impact on farm output in Western Kenya
(Working Paper, 2019-11) Karanja Ng'ang'a, Stanley; Anyango Jalang'o, Dorcas; Girvetz, Evan Hartunian
Adoption of soil carbon practices has the capability of increasing yield, thus improving income and food availability. This paper assessed the adoption of agricultural practices that enhance soil carbon. Data from 334 households were collected in the rural areas of Western Kenya using a multistage sampling technique. The multivariate probit model and propensity score matching method were used to analyze the determinants of adoption of soil carbon practices and the impact on output, respectively. Results show that agroforestry, intercropping, terracing, and the use of inorganic fertilizer are the dominant soil carbon practices, which are discretely and diversely affected by socioeconomic, farm-level, institutional, and biophysical characteristics. However, the adoption of maize-bean intercropping alone has a great impact on maize production and increases output by approximately 240 kilograms. The findings from this study suggest that the adoption capacity of farming households can be accelerated by independently making interventions targeting individual practices rather than compounding the practices. Consequently, emphasis should target interventions that encourage the adoption of intercropping since its economic impact has been evidently underlined.
Transforming food environments to deliver healthy diet options: Economic rationale and policy drivers
(Working Paper, 2019-10) Mockshell, Jonathan Yaw; Martey, Edward; Etwire, Prince M.; Khoury, Colin K.; Prager, Steven D.
The second Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) envisions comprehensive global food security and improved nutrition by 2030. This is a major challenge, with persisting undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies in multiple regions, and the increase in excessive consumption of macronutrients contributing to overweight and obesity, heart disease, and Type 2 diabetes even in low- and middle-income countries. While improvements are needed throughout current food systems, the food retail environment (FRE) in developing countries remains an underexplored link between production systems and consumers in food and nutrition security programs. This study examines the economic rationale of actors in the food retail environment and suggests policy options to nudge the food environment to deliver a healthier basket of foods. The policy options are classified into personal changes, private sector actions, and public sector initiatives. We argue that for a comprehensive transformation of the food retail environment to deliver healthier food options, private, public sector initiatives, and consumer awareness all require urgent action.
Characterization of cassava production systems in Vietnam
(Working Paper, 2019-08) Le, Dung Phuong; Labarta, Ricardo Antonio; Haan, Stef de; Maredia, Mywish K.; Becerra López Lavelle, Luis Augusto; Nhu, Lien Thi; Ovalle, Tatiana M.; Nguyen, Vu Anh; Pham, Nhan Thi; Nguyen, Hy Huu; Nguyen, Hien Trong; Le, Kha Quy; Le, Huy Ham
Using a nationally representative survey of cassava-growing households in Vietnam and a robust method of varietal identification based on DNA fingerprinting, this paper provides a broad picture of cassava production and socio-economic characteristics of cassava producers in the country. It presents a descriptive analysis of cassava production practices, varietal use, varietal preferences, as well as cassava utilization, and marketing. Results indicate that more than 85% of the cassava area in Vietnam is planted to improved varieties. The average yield at national level is 19 tons per hectare. About 69% of total cassava produced per household is sold as either fresh roots and/or dried chips. The remaining 31% is either for own consumption or for livestock feed. Of all the six regions surveyed, the Southeast is characterized by the most intensive cassava production practices. It also has the largest average cassava area per household, the highest percentage of tractor use, and a higher percentage of fertilizer application on cassava fields. The findings suggest that there are huge challenges for sustainable cassava intensification, specifically in identifying the needs for market diversification, dealing with emerging pests and diseases, and implementing adequate soil management practices. This is particularly challenging in a system that is driven by the need to maximize output with minimum investment. Future research and development should focus on integrated value chain development with multiple actors focusing attention on integrated pest and disease management, seed systems development, breeding for resistance and earliness, and climate change adaptation, among others.
Towards a cropping system sustainability tool (CROSST) - Pilot results from evaluating green manure cover crops in Benin and Kenya
(Working Paper, 2019-08) Mukiri, Jessica; Diogo, Rodrigue V. Cao; Gbedjissokpa, Sènami G.M.; Kinyua, Michael; Hoek, Rein van der; Sommer, Rolf; Paul, Birthe K.
Farming practices in sub-Saharan Africa have resulted in declining soil fertility. Hence, Green Manure Cover Crops (GMCC) are promoted for soil improvement and protection. Adoption of GMCCs by farmers, including integration in their cropping systems, requires a good understanding of the multi-dimensional impacts of these crops. We, therefore, developed the Cropping Systems Assessment Sustainability Tool (CROSST), which can compare the performance of different cropping systems with and without the integration of GMCCs. CROSST is an Excel-based tool that assesses both agro-environmental and socio-economic impacts of GMCC technologies. The tool quantifies gross economic margin, productivity (yield), soil health (N and P balances, soil structure, and soil organic carbon), required labour hours, and the trade-offs between these indicators. The tool was pilot-tested in Benin and Kenya under the BMZ-GIZ program on ‘Soil Protection and Rehabilitation for Food Security.’ Data was collected through literature reviews, focus group discussions and key expert interviews. The compared cropping systems were selected and designed by experts with in-depth knowledge on local contexts of Benin and Western Kenya. The first results indicate that GMCCs improve soil structure/soil organic matter as well as soil N balances in both countries. However, investing in soil improvement can result in loss of profitability, especially when a crop that produces grain for consumption or sale is swapped for a GMCC that produces biomass for soil amendment only. CROSST still needs further data refinement with recent official census as well as independent field measurements. Once validated, it can serve as a decision-support tool for development agencies, implementing partners, and local stakeholders when designing sustainable cropping systems that integrate GMCCs.
Rangeland Degradation: Causes, Consequences, Monitoring Techniques and Remedies
(Working Paper, 2019-07) Bolo, Peter Omondi; Sommer, Rolf; Kihara, Job Maguta; Kinyua, Michael; Nyawira, Sylvia; Notenbaert, An Maria Omer
Rangelands occupy 25% of the total land surface globally. In Africa, rangelands are estimated to cover 66% of the land surface, although there are variations from country to country. In Eastern Africa, for example, land surface coverage of rangeland areas varies from 44% in Uganda and 65% in Ethiopia to 74% in Tanzania and over 80% in Kenya. Rangelands have environmental, social and economic benefits, including support to national economies through tourism and employment. In Kenya, tourism, much of which is attributed to rangelands, accounts for 13% of the gross domestic product. In Tanzania, tourism contributed 9.0% of the total GDP, supporting 26% of total exports, 8.2% of the total employment, and 8.7% of total investment in the year 2017. Despite their benefits, rangelands are under threat of continued degradation driven by anthropogenic and natural causes. Natural causes of rangeland degradation include climate change and variabilities, aridity and desertification, drought, as well as alien species invasion. Anthropogenic rangeland degradation can manifest through agricultural activities and associated developmental practices, overstocking and overgrazing, as well as breakdown of social structures and government policies/by-laws. Continuous overgrazing and overstocking not only affect soil physical (compaction, breakdown of aggregates) but also chemical (soil pH and salinization, nutrient leaching, diminishing organic matter content), and biological properties. These decrease rangeland production potentials. However, numerous strategies to arrest and remedy rangeland degradation, such as rangeland re-vegetation, water harvesting, soil surface scarification, and livestock grazing management are available. This report addresses rangeland degradation and potential control measures with a strong focus on soil aspects.
Climate risk assessment for selected value chain commodities in Rwanda
(Working Paper, 2019) Mwongera, Caroline; Mutua, John Y.; Koech, Nicholas; Osiemo, Jamleck; Kinyua, Ivy Wambui; Nguru, Wilson
Soil carbon under current and improved land management in Kenya, Ethiopia and India: Dynamics and sequestration potentials
(Working Paper, 2018-12-19) Sommer, Rolf; Silva, Mayesse Aparecida da; Nyawira, Sylvia; Abera, Wuletawu; Tamene, Lulseged D.; Yaekob, Tesfaye; Kihara, Job Maguta; Piikki, Kristin; Söderström, Mats; Margenot, Andrew J.
Agriculture is a major contributor to climate change, emitting the three major greenhouse gases (GHGs) – carbon dioxide (CO2), methane and nitrous oxide – into the atmosphere. According to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use sector “is responsible for just under a quarter (~10–12 Gt CO2eq/yr) of [all] anthropogenic GHG emissions mainly from deforestation and agricultural emissions from livestock, soil and nutrient management”. Land use change – often associated with deforestation – contributes about 11.2% to this share, while agricultural production is responsible for 11.8% (IPCC, 2014). To reduce emissions from agriculture, while providing and maintaining global food security, there is a growing interest to develop and promote low-emission greengrowth pathways for future agricultural production systems. Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) faces two concerns in that respect: a) agriculture is the major emitter of GHGs on this sub-continent, and b) agriculture is largely underperforming. To feed a growing population, productivity and total production need to increase significantly. To achieve this while reducing emissions from agriculture at the same time is a major challenge. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) sets out to address this challenge by transforming agricultural systems affected by the vagaries of climate change. CSA aims at improving food security and system’s resilience while addressing climate change mitigation.
Agronomic management controls microbial populations in soils of western Kenya
(Working Paper, 2018-10) Kihara, Job Maguta; Bolo, Peter Omondi; Ayaga, George; Mukulama, John; Margenot, Andrew J.; Sommer, Rolf
The provision of food requirements for current and future generations can be guaranteed through agricultural intensification options that safeguard the production resource base. Over the years, the debate on sustainable agricultural intensification has not been matched with due regard to how the intensification options influence the functions and balance of soil organisms and soil biology in general. Soil mesofauna and microorganisms have received very little attention so far. In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) especially, there is very little knowledge and documentation of soil micro-organismal functioning and how these affect and are affected by the abiotic environment (soil physical and chemical properties, and climatic conditions), as well as agricultural management and intensification. Therefore, there is need to evaluate how measures to restore soil fertility and improve its productivity influence not only crop productivity and soil physical and chemical changes, but also soil biology, i.e. the diversity of macro-, meso- and micro-fauna and flora. In addition, the impact of ‘sustainable’ intensification on the evolution of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and related climate footprint remains to be assessed in a comprehensive manner. Key intensification options currently under promotion by practitioners include conservation agriculture and various integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) options. Minimum soil disturbance, a minimum soil cover of at least 30% throughout the season and crop rotation/intercropping, all of which are principles of conservation agriculture (CA), have been shown to not only introduce shifts in microbial populations but also improve soil structure (Kihara et al., 2012) and enhance carbon sequestration in the top soil. On the other hand, increased aggregation in CA provides anaerobic microsites suitable for micro-organisms that contribute to nitrogen (N) losses through denitrification, and the release of nitrous oxide (N2O); a potent GHG. How such losses are influenced by nutrient inputs, such as through application of mineral fertilizer or biological N fixation, remains largely un-assessed in SSA. The use of chemical fertilizers, one way of increasing crop productivity in SSA, can have variable effects on microbial biomass and activity (Wardle, 1992; Treseder, 2008). For instance, increased amounts of readily available forms of key inorganic mineral nutrients, e.g. N and P, can decrease population and diversity of various microbial functional groups associated with nutrient uptake (e.g. arbuscular mycorrhizae fungi) and nitrogen fixation (e.g. rhizobium) (Azcón-Aguilar and Bago, 1994; Smith and Read, 1997). On the other hand, fertilizer use increases plant biomass production which, when returned to the soil, promotes microbial proliferation and diversity (Álvarez, 2005). The effects of fertilizer use, either alone or in combination of organic resources, on soil micro-organisms need, therefore, to be evaluated in order to guide sound soil management practices.
Feeding the World in a Changing Climate: An Adaptation Roadmap for Agriculture
(Working Paper, 2018-10) Loboguerrero Rodriguez, Ana María; Birch, James; Thornton, Philip K.; Meza, Laura; Sunga, Ishmael; Bong, Bui Ba; Rabbinge, Rudy; Reddy, Matthew; Dinesh, Dhanush; Korner, Jana; Martínez Barón, Deissy; Millan, Alberto; Hansen, James; Huyer, Sophia; Campbell, Bruce M.
The impacts of a warming world are affecting food production in every corner of the globe. From shifting rainfall patterns and growing seasons, to more frequent and extreme droughts and floods, to increasingly severe pest and disease outbreaks among crops and livestock, farming as we know it is under attack. Globally, agricultural production has fallen by 1-5 percent each decade for the past 30 years, with tropical regions the hardest hit. In 2017, according to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), droughts, floods and delayed growing seasons helped trigger food crises in Central America, East and West Africa, and parts of Asia. Yet far worse outcomes are likely ahead for vulnerable food consumers and producers as these climate change impacts intensify and the world’s population climbs—if we persist with a business as usual approach. The implication is clear. The agricultural development community must urgently come together around a comprehensive and accelerated adaptation roadmap for food production acknowledging that major transitions across the agriculture sector will be needed. This report seeks to lay the groundwork for a way forward. It brings together academic research, examples of proven adaptive technologies and practices, and lessons learned from practitioners including government, farming communities and the private sector. It then provides recommendations for the development of new technologies and practices and on how to scale what’s already working to drive global climate-resilient transitions. The report focuses on agriculture, primarily in the developing world, recognizing that this is only a part of a larger and more complex set of issues related to food systems and their transformation for sustainability. The report identifies a range of adaptive farming technologies and practices that are proven to work and suitable for scaling. These include stress tolerant crops and livestock breeds, sustainable forms of farming intensification, and better risk management through innovations like climate information systems and index-linked insurance. As policy makers, farmers, scientists, civil society organizations and others trial these and other adaptation practices around the world, important lessons for success are emerging that should inform future efforts.
Feeding a productive dairy cow in western Kenya: environmental and socioeconomic impacts
(Working Paper, 2018-10) Osele, Vivien; Paul, Birthe K.; Mukiri, Jessica; Halder, Sheila; Sagala, Titus; Juma, Alfred; Notenbaert, An Maria Omer
Send a Cow (SAC) is a nongovernmental organization (NGO) that has been working in Kenya since 1996. It focuses on groups of smallholder farmers, providing them with training in sustainable agriculture and improved animal management. SAC is mostly active in western Kenya, one of the country's most populated and poorest region. The population density for this region ranges from 337 to 1,300 inhabitants per km² with an average density of 590 people per km2 (Kenya Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2001; KNBS, 2010). Over 50% of the people in this area are dependent on agriculture and live below the poverty line of US$1/day (Iruria et al., 2009; Makokha et al., 2007). In 2013, SAC started the “Wealth Creation Project” (WCP) in Busia, Kakamega, Siaya, and Bungoma Counties in the Western Province of Kenya. The project aims to increase the agri-production systems of 9,500 smallholder farming families by diversifying their diets and giving them an additional source of income. Farmers are provided with training in animal management and sustainable agricultural practices throughout the project. After comprehensive trainings and farm asset evaluation, farmers were given livestock. The gift of one improved livestock head to each rural, poor family created wealth and security for them, contributing to wealth creation by improving the quality of life and offering a potential pathway out of poverty (Nicholson et al., 2003). The WCP adds to the increasing number of smallholder farmers who keep improved dairy cows as a source of income and financial security. In 2007, it was estimated that 99,000 smallholder dairy farmers in the Western Province were keeping about 192,300 improved dairy cattle (Muriuki, 2011). Land has become the main limiting factor in this already densely populated region, due to continuous population growth and land fragmentation. The small land size per farm (1 acre on average), which is further subdivided in each generation, is a major obstacle to providing adequate energy and protein intake for a dairy cow and a household. Due to limited land size, farmers put most of the available land under food crops and dedicate little area to planted fodder. Researching on the land area that is necessary to adequately feed a productive dairy cow and a family is essential for effective decision making and for training the farmers in sustainable feed production and farm planning. Therefore, SAC collaborated with CIAT in assessing the land requirement for a dairy cow under different feeding regimes and explored the trade-offs of these feeding strategies in terms of food vs. feed land requirements, environmental impacts, and profitability. This research field is a focus area in farming systems research and trade-off analysis, both areas where CIAT has expertise.
An analysis of land management stakeholders in Lushoto (Tanzania) and Ntcheu (Malawi).
(Working Paper, 2018-07) Rosendahl, Judith
Widespread land degradation has serious negative ecological, social, and economic consequences. This is particularly true for smallholder farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa, which are crucial for the livelihoods of the majority of the population and the national economies. Sustainable land management (SLM) is seen as the best way to combat or even reverse land degradation. However, the contexts and conditions hindering land users’ uptake of SLM techniques are often poorly understood. The AGORA project explores the drivers of land degradation at two sites in Tanzania and Malawi. It focuses on the social and economic hindrances to the adoption of SLM practices. This Working Paper presents key findings of a stakeholder analysis of both sites. The analysis builds on interviews, a stakeholder workshop, and NetMap outputs. It sheds light on particular challenges, especially a lack of support, for successful sustainable land management by smallholders in both sites. Potentials and entry points for improvement lie in existing knowledge on SLM and attempts for coordination of service providers. Some findings were used to initiate a stakeholder engagement process that aims to enhance SLM in the two regions.

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