IPMS Working Papers

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Smallholder dairy production and marketing systems in Ethiopia: IPMS experiences and opportunities for market-oriented development
(Working Paper, 2013-04-19) Tegegne, Azage; Gebremedhin, Berhanu; Hoekstra, Dirk; Belay, B.; Mekasha, Yoseph
Summary report of market-oriented developmental changes in the IPMS Pilot Learning Woredas
(Working Paper, 2012-09-20) Gebremedhin, Berhanu; Hoekstra, Dirk; Bogale, A.; Berhe, Kahsay; Tegegne, Azage
Capacity for knowledge-based smallholder agriculture in Ethiopia: Linking graduate programs to market-oriented agricultural development: Challenges, opportunities and IPMS experience
(Working Paper, 2012-01-15) Lemma, T.; Tegegne, Azage; Hoekstra, Dirk
Graduate Programs in agriculture and allied disciplines in Ethiopia (henceforth the GPs) are expected to make concrete contributions towards achieving market-led and knowledge-based transformation of smallholder agriculture. To that end, strengthening capacities of the GPs and linking them to development deserve due policy attention. No panacea exists, however, as to how the programs can be better strengthened, linked, and become more responsive. Lessons from initiatives on the ground in the country and beyond are thus crucial to inform policy and the development of context specific innovative strategies. This paper aims to make a modest contribution to the discourse in Ethiopia and beyond on transforming GPs related to agriculture into ‘developmental institutions’. The paper highlights the imperatives for knowledge-based transformation of smallholder agriculture in Ethiopia and emerging roles of GPs; discusses key challenges of the GPs to realize their mandates and to meet ever changing expectations. It also presents a case study of an initiative by +aimed at linking GPs through research by students to commodity value chain development and actors, and discusses qualitative and quantitative indicators of outcome in terms of enhanced research and learning experience. The paper draws out some lessons and identifies strategic and practical options, including from the review of good practices elsewhere, that may help to improve learning and research in the GPs. The analysis shows that the GPs are currently facing several challenges, which could not be solved by government or by the programs alone, but rather require multiple linkages and collaborations. The GPs, on the one hand, need to be more proactive in creating linkages and partnering with regional and federal governments, and with development/interventions, and, on the other, actors who are truly committed to sustainability should be more willing to integrate systematically into development programs, as a critical component, partnering with and strengthening capacity of key capacity building national institutions, such as the GPs. Revitalizing the programs calls for holistic approach from an innovation systems perspective, multipronged and multi-level strategies, and long-term commitments.
Shifting towards market-oriented irrigated crops development as an approach to improve the income of farmers: Evidence from northern Ethiopia
(Working Paper, 2011-05-25) Woldewahid, G.; Gebremedhin, Berhanu; Berhe, Kahsay; Hoekstra, Dirk
Rainfed crop production in the semi-arid areas is associated with high risk of rainfall variability which occasionally leads to complete crop failure. Most of the farmers in Atsbi-Womberta district of Eastern Tigray region, northern Ethiopia, have been classified as food insecure. To improve farmers’ livelihoods in the district, interventions targeted at resource conservation and better use of conserved water for market-oriented irrigated crops development have been promoted. This paper analyses the process and outcome of shifting towards market-oriented irrigated crops development and compares variation in income between beneficiary and nonbeneficiary households. The transformation processes are based on market-oriented diversification into high value irrigated crops, based on a value chain approach, and demand driven, participatory and knowledge based extension. The paper also assesses the response of smallholder farmers to emerging opportunities and challenges, and the spectrum of transformation processes and strategies followed to bring changes in smallholder farmers’ income. The changes associated with the interventions were systematically captured using household level surveys, specialized studies and key informant interviews. Results show that farmers gradually shifted to non-cereal, more market-oriented irrigated crops, in which the share of market-oriented irrigated crops increased from 27% of the total irrigated land in 2004 to 89% in 2009. Similarly, the total irrigated area increased by about fourfold and the number of beneficiaries by about threefold due to improved use of conserved surface and groundwater, and investment in farmer skills and water lifting devices. Moreover, crop diversification and intensification of households increased in response to emerging opportunities and challenges. Annual cropping intensity shifted from mono-crop cereal to 2–3 high value diversified crop farming by some farmers. On aggregate, average income of beneficiary households increased by about ninefold compared to non-beneficiary households. In the transformation, there have been continuous and interconnected processes and strategies in improving the effectiveness of adopting and using new skills and knowledge in harvesting and productive use of water, and responsive capacity of the extension system and partners. The lessons imply that investment in resources conservation could be enhanced if linked with short-term income generating activities through linkages with markets.
Interdependence of smallholders’ net market positions in crop and livestock markets: Evidence from Ethiopia
(Working Paper, 2011-04-12) Jaleta, Moti; Gebremedhin, Berhanu
Using simultaneous-equation models, this paper examines whether there is interdependence between smallholder’s net market positions in crop and live animals markets under mixed crop–livestock system. Household level data collected in 2009 from 1075 sample households in 10 districts of Ethiopia are used for the analyses. Results confirm the existence of interdependence between household’s net positions in crop and live animals markets and, relatively, the net position of households in the live animals market is dictated by their net position in the crop market. The interdependence between the two market positions shows that households stock live animal asset through selling surplus crops produced and finance crop purchase through live animals sales. The relative strength of the net market position in crop markets shows that prior to their involvement in live animal market, farm households analyse their position in crop production, consumption, marketable surplus, and the household’s ability to meet cash requirements through crop sale. Thus, policies/strategies enhancing smallholders’ participation in crop and live animals markets in mixed crop–livestock system should pay attention to the production and marketing of both commodities simultaneously.
Breeding strategy to improve Ethiopian Boran cattle for meat and milk production
(Working Paper, 2011-02-03) Haile, Aynalem; Workneh, A.; Tegegne, Azage; Kebede, N.; Dessie, Tadelle
In Ethiopia, genetic improvement of the indigenous cattle for dairy production, focusing on crossbreeding, has been practised for the last five decades, albeit with little success. Selection as an improvement tool has been given less emphasis and as such there have been no systematic and organized selection schemes for cattle genetic improvement in Ethiopia. In addition, little or no genetic improvement work targeted at improving beef production has been undertaken so far. Therefore, there is a need to develop effective and sustainable genetic improvement schemes for indigenous cattle breeds of Ethiopia. This report is prepared to develop breeding plans for the Ethiopian Boran cattle and is based on: 1) secondary data sources that include literature review from earlier works on Ethiopian Boran cattle; 2) results of data collected and analysed from dairy herds at Debre Zeit research Station of the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and the Holetta Agricultural Research Center of the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR); 3) detailed desk work to design the improvement program; and 4) suitability analysis for Boran cattle using GIS. Ethiopian Boran, although a beef breed in many tropical countries, has been used as a dairy animal in many development and experimental activities in Ethiopia. The breed has been found to be fast growing, fertile and good milk producer compared to other indigenous cattle breeds in Ethiopia. The growth, reproduction and milk production performance of Boran has been improved in different parts of the world including Kenya, South Africa, Australia and USA. This indicates the huge potential of the breed that could be tapped if appropriate breeding strategy supported by proper management could be designed and fully implemented. In this report, selection scheme based on open nucleus breeding program is suggested to improve the beef and dairy attributes of the Ethiopian Boran cattle. Where crossbreeding is an option to improve dairy performance, a detail operational scheme is also suggested. Suitability of Ethiopian Boran cattle to different locations in Ethiopia is also mapped using GIS.
Rangeland condition and feed resources in Metema district, North Gondar Zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia
(Working Paper, 2011-01-10) Desalew, T.; Tegegne, Azage; Nigatu, L.; Teka, W.
The study was conducted in 2006/07 in Metema district, North Gondar Zone of Amhara region, Ethiopia, with the objectives to characterize the existing rangeland and to determine the feed resources utilization practices, to assess the natural grazing land condition based on herbaceous, woody and soil condition and to evaluate the chemical composition of major livestock feed resources of the area. A single-visit formal survey, group discussions and visual observations are used to collect the primary information and secondary sources are also used in livestock feed resources assessment of the district. A total of 140 respondents from 7 kebeles were selected for interviewing by stratified random sampling techniques. To assess the range conditions, the samples were collected by classifying the district into cotton–livestock and sesame–livestock farming systems. Within a farming system, grazing lands were further stratified into three sampling areas: communal, road side and enclosure grazing areas. In each of the range sites a sampling block of 4 km × 1 km was demarcated and this was further stratified into four sampling plots of equal size. In each of the plot, a belt transects of 50 m × 4 m was laid out randomly. Then, the parameter used for (herbaceous, soil and woody) grass species composition, basal cover, litter cover, soil erosion, soil compaction, seedling count, age distribution and woody density enumeration, canopy cover and hedging were determined. For the height classes <0–1 m, >1–3 m, >3–4.5 m and >4.5 m was used. Feed samples were stratified by season and types and subjected to chemical analysis for determination of DM, ash, CP, ADF, ADL and IVDMD. About 83% of the inhabitants in the district practice mixed crop–livestock farming system. The mean family size is 5.31 ± 0.20 persons per household, while the average land holding is 6.78 ± 1.33 ha/household. The mean livestock holding per household is 12.52 ± 6.23 TLU, and is composed of cattle, goats, sheep, donkeys and camels. Natural pasture (55.7%), crop residues (20.7%), stubble (14.3%) and hay (9.3%) are the major feed resources for dry season whereas in the wet season only natural pasture serves as feed resource. The total estimated DM yield of grazing land and stubble is 780,750 and 51,954 t DM per annum, respectively. The total estimated available feed supply is 833,531.2 t DM per annum. Of the identified 33 herbaceous species, 14 and 19 are different grasses and non-grass species. From the non-grass species 6 legumes and 13 sedges and other species are recorded. Of the grasses, 23.07%, 38.46% and 30.77% are highly desirable, desirable and less desirable, respectively. Of the identified 20 woody species, 15%, 35%, and 50% are highly desirable, desirable and less desirable, respectively. The largest proportion of woody vegetation is contributed by different species of acacia (20%)and commbretum (10%). Trees and shrubs grouped within the height class of >1–3 m constituted 41.2% in communal grazing areas, 38.5% in road side grazing and 33.3% in enclosures. Range condition assessment factors such as basal cover, litter cover, grass species composition, woody vegetation density, canopy cover, hedging effect, age distribution and total condition score are significant (P<0.05) in communal grazing areas of the sesame–livestock than in the cotton–livestock farming system. The communal grazing areas have significantly (P< 0.05) higher values of grass species composition, basal cover, litter cover, age distribution, and woody species density score, than the road side grazing areas and lower (P<0.05) than the enclosure grazing areas. The dry matter biomass of grass, highly desirable, desirable species of grasses and legumes and others obtained in the same farming system were significantly (P<0.05) higher than the road side grazing types and lower (P<0.05) in total grass biomass, highly desirable grass, and total biomass than enclosure areas. The total dry matter biomass, dry matter biomass of grass and highly desirable grasses, and legumes are significantly (P<0.05) higher in the enclosure followed by communal grazing and the road side grazing areas. In general, there is low feed resources conservation and utilization and very poor traditional grazing land management system in Metema. The abundant feed resources in the wet season are wasted. In the dry season, grasses are turned to ash by wild and man-made fire in the process of forest honey harvesting and crop land cleaning. As a result, the livestock populations seriously suffer from the critical feed shortage during the long dry season.The rangeland, species composition and biomass production are also affected by human, livestock and natural factors (biotic and abiotic factors). The human population of the district has increased due to settlement programs, investment induced settlers, expanding crop cultivation and have increased the pressure on the rangelands and natural grazing areas. Bush encroachment and overgrazing are also serious problems. Shifting cultivation practice is also contributing to the increased bush encroachment. The seasonal movement and transhumant livestock production by highlanders in adjacent districts also increases the grazing intensity. Absence of adequate baseline information about the rangeland resources, unsynchronized seasonal availability of feed resources and cropland encroachment to the rangeland are some of the main constraints of the district, and studies on rangeland management systems and improved livestock production should be initiated.
Commercialization of smallholders: Does market orientation translate into market participation?
(Working Paper, 2010-12-09) Gebremedhin, Berhanu; Jaleta, Moti
The literature on commercial transformation of smallholders make little distinction between market orientation (production decision based on market signals) and market participation (sale of output). This paper analyses the determinants of market orientation and market participation in Ethiopia separately and examines if market orientation translates into market participation. Empirical results show that market orientation translates strongly into market participation. The key implication of this study is that policy, technological, organizational and institutional interventions aimed at promoting commercial transformation of subsistence agriculture should follow two-pronged approach: improving market orientation of smallholders at production level, and facilitating market entry and participation of households in output and input markets. Focusing on either may not be as effective in achieving the transformation.
Indigenous chicken production and marketing systems in Ethiopia: Characteristics and opportunities for market-oriented development
(Working Paper, 2010-12-02) Moges, F.; Tegegne, Azage; Dessie, Tadelle
This working paper presents a synthesis of research findings undertaken in three woredas or districts (Bure, Fogera in Amhara Regional State and Dale in the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State) in Ethiopia. These woredas are Pilot Learning Woredas (PLWs) of the Improving Productivity and Market Success (IPMS) of Ethiopian Farmers Project being implemented by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). The major objective of these studies was to assess the existing indigenous chicken production and marketing systems and identify major constraints and priorities for improvement and extension interventions. A formal survey with structured questionnaire and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) methods relevant to village chicken production systems were used to collect data. The result of these studies revealed that the dominant chicken production system of the study districts is an extensive/traditional type of production, using local chicken ecotypes, managed mainly on scavenging with seasonal feed supplementation of home-grown grains and household food refusals.
Sustainable land management through market oriented commodity development: Case studies from Ethiopia
(Working Paper, 2010-08-30) Gebremedhin, Berhanu; Woldewahid, G.; Dessalegn, Yigsaw; Gebey, T.; Teka, W.
Land degradation has been identified as severe environmental problem in Ethiopia, especially since the early 1970s. Because there is significant degradation on cultivated lands in Ethiopia, there is potentially high payoff to addressing degradation in the country. In this paper we focus mainly on the effect of short-term benefits to farmers and the explicit considerations of the linkages between natural resource management and market-oriented commodity development on the adoption and scaling out of sustainable land management practices. We hypothesize that linking natural resource management with market-oriented commodity development enhances sustainable land management by providing farmers with short-term benefits. We test this hypothesis with analysis of case studies of four districts in Ethiopia. Two of the case studies deal with the linkage between grazing land development and market-oriented livestock development, and the other two deal with the linkage between conservation agriculture and market-oriented crop production. Results indicate that, indeed, direct linkages of natural resource management with market-oriented commodity development that have profitable market opportunities can enhance sustainable land management. Results imply that participatory approaches to the appraisal of community resources, identification and prioritization of key constraints of commodity development, and implementation of interventions greatly facilitate adoption and scaling out of interventions.
Sheep and goat production and marketing systems in Ethiopia: characteristics and strategies for improvement
(Working Paper, 2010-08-12) Gizaw, Solomon; Tegegne, Azage; Gebremedhin, Berhanu; Hoekstra, Dirk
Ethiopia is home for a large and diverse livestock resources and favourable production environments. The vast majority of the rural population’s livelihood is partly based on livestock production. However, livestock production and productivity and producers’ benefits from livestock production are far below expectations. Understanding the livestock production and marketing characteristics and producers’ needs and perceptions, identifying constraints and opportunities, and designing workable production strategies are required in order to improve livestock productivity and market success of producers. Based on a series of IPMS studies, this paper synthesises and analyses the characteristics, constraints and opportunities of sheep and goat production and marketing in Ethiopia. The paper also puts forward strategic interventions for improving sheep and goat productivity and producers market success. Livestock production systems in Ethiopia have evolved largely as a result of the influence of the natural production environments and socio-economic circumstances of farmers/ pastoralists, rather than market forces. Livestock production is of subsistence nature. Like all other livestock species, sheep and goat in Ethiopia are kept under traditional extensive systems with no or minimal inputs and improved technologies, which results in characteristically low productivity. They are virtually kept as scavengers, particularly in the mixed crop–livestock systems. Sheep and goat are largely produced in mixed crop–livestock, specialized pastoral and agropastoral systems. Market-oriented or commercial production is almost non-existent. Small flock sizes predominate in the highland mixed crop–livestock systems because of land and capital limitations. Relatively larger flocks are maintained in the lowland (agro) pastoral systems. The major feed resources for sheep and goats include grazing on communal natural pasture, crop stubble, fallow grazing, road side grazing, crop residues, browses, and non-conventional feeds (household food leftovers, weeds, crop tillers and fillers). Production of improved forages, improvement of low quality feed sources such as crop residues and supplementary feeding (except fattening) is almost non-existent.
Livestock input supply and service provision in Ethiopia: challenges and opportunities for market-oriented development
(Working Paper, 2010-06-23) Tegegne, Azage; Gebremedhin, Berhanu; Hoekstra, Dirk
Livestock production in Ethiopia has, for long, remained subsistence with limited market-orientation and poor institutional support. Producing for the market requires re-orientation of the production system and development of a knowledge based and responsive institutional support services. Institutional support services of extension, research, input supply, rural finance and marketing are key areas of intervention that can play a central role in the transformation of subsistence production into market orientation. Livestock production systems in Ethiopia can be broadly categorized into mixed crop–livestock system, pastoral and agropastoral system, and urban and peri-urban production systems. The demand for institutional support services for livestock development in these production systems can vary significantly. The way extension system is oriented in Ethiopia may not be in the best interest of livestock keepers and lacks the responsive capacity to the demands for livestock services. In fact, most often livestock development issues are left to development projects and NGOs that have limited scope, coverage and duration. The major inputs for livestock development include animal genetic resources, feeds and forages, veterinary drugs, vaccines, machinery equipment and utensils as well as knowledge. Most of these inputs have been supplied only by the government or government sponsored projects. Limited credit facilities to support livestock development have been provided by microfinance institutions, food security projects, small-scale micro enterprises and NGOs.
Opportunities for promoting gender equality in rural Ethiopia through the commercialization of agriculture
(Working Paper, 2010-05-31) Aregu, Lemlem; Bishop-Sambrook, C.; Puskur, Ranjitha; Tesema, E.
Rural women in Ethiopia represent a tremendous productive resource in the agricultural sector. They are major contributors to the agricultural workforce, either as family members or in their own right as women heading households. However, despite recent policy initiatives to strengthen the position of women in the agricultural sector, a mixture of economic constraints, cultural norms and practices continue to limit their contribution to household food security and, to a lesser extent, inhibits the commercialization of the sector. Gender roles and relationships influence the division of work, the use of resources, and the sharing of the benefits of production between women and men. In particular, the introduction of new technologies and practices, underpinned by improved service provision, often disregards the gendered-consequences of market-oriented growth and many benefits bypass women. Not only do these circumstances have implications for issues of equality but also may be detrimental to the long-term sustainability of development initiatives. Despite the crucial role of the agricultural sector in the Ethiopian economy, studies on gender aspects of agricultural commercialization are relatively scarce. The main purpose of this paper is to contribute to the knowledge base about implications of gender roles and responsibilities for the development of the agricultural sector. This paper discusses gender issues in the context of the Improving Productivity and Market Success (IPMS) of Ethiopian Farmers’ Project being implemented by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and the Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. The findings are based on qualitative studies undertaken by the IPMS gender research team and Research and Development Officers in 10 pilot learning woredas (PLWs) located in 4 regions of the country. The study had three objectives: to increase the understanding of the different roles of women and men in agricultural activities, marketing and decision making, and their share in the benefits; to identify potential barriers for women’s and men’s participation in market-led development initiatives and technology adoption; and to identify what actions may overcome some of these barriers.
Cattle milk and meat production and marketing systems and opportunities for market-orientation in Fogera woreda, Amhara region, Ethiopia
(Working Paper, 2010-05-26) Anteneh, B.; Tegegne, Azage; Beyene, F.; Gebremedhin, Berhanu
This study was conducted in Fogera woreda, South Gondar Zone of the Amhara National Regional State in northwestern Ethiopia in 2005/06. The aim was to characterize cattle milk and meat production and marketing systems, identify the major constraints and provide development interventions for more market-orientation. Twelve kebeles were randomly selected (five from the Fogera plains and seven outside the plains) based on their potential for cattle milk and meat production. A total of 480 households were sampled from these kebeles and focus group discussion, personal observations and administration of semi-structured questionnaires on milk and meat production practices were employed. Only 12 (2.52%) of the respondents were female-headed households. About 98.8% of cattle milk and meat production was based on traditional husbandry using indigenous cattle breeds. The Fogera cattle is the major breed used and is mainly found in the Damote, Sendeye and Tigre mender villages. The main feed resources in the woreda are communal grazing land and crop residues of teff, rice, finger millet, barley, wheat, chickpea, field pea and maize. The communal grazing land currently accounts for about 9602.4 ha; out of which 3418.5 ha (35.6%) is infested by a noxious weed known as Asracantha longifolia (amykila). Over a period of two years, large area of communal grazing land has been transformed into crop farms, mainly to rice production, and this has apparently created severe feed shortage in the woreda. Flooding of the plains during the wet season from Gumara and Rib rivers further reduced the availability of grazing land. In addition, large number of animals are trekked from the highlands of Fogera and adjacent woredas of Dera and Estie to the plains during the dry season and this has resulted in inter-breeding of the Fogera cattle breed with highland zebus and has exacerbated the feed shortage. Rice husk, a by-product from rice polishers, is becoming an important feed resource. On average, about 35 kg of rice husk is produced from a quintal of rice. The major water resources are wells (48.8%), rivers (47.2%), lake (3%), ponds (2.3%) and tap water (0.2%). Cattle are watered once a day. Trypanosomiasis, facioliasis and schistosomiasis are the most prevalent diseases.
Commercializing dairy and forage systems in Ethiopia: An innovation systems perspective
(Working Paper, 2010-05-05) Lemma, T.; Puskur, Ranjitha; Hoekstra, Dirk; Tegegne, Azage
This paper presents and discusses the results of the analysis of Ethiopian dairy and forage innovation systems. Two factors triggered the need for understanding the innovation systems: Ethiopian dairy subsector has not been able to take-off despite decades of research and development efforts; and the context for the subsector development is changing. The purpose of the research was to identify organizational, institutional and policy options to facilitate market-driven and knowledge-based smallholder dairy development in the country. Specifically, the analysis looked at contextual factors determining opportunities and necessities for innovation; the key innovation systems actors, pattern of interaction between them; coordination mechanisms; and the subsector development policy and strategy. The investigation was based on a survey of actors and their roles and interactions, review of policy, and project documents and available empirical evidence. The research identified constraints and challenges relating to market, supportive services, interaction of actors, inter-organizational coordination, and gaps in the subsector development policy and strategy. Finally,options are identified that can enhance commercialization and innovation. The options include: strengthening dairy cooperatives with emphasis on their business-orientation, linking them, where appropriate, vertically to processors and input suppliers, and strategically linking dairy development intervention to informal markets through food security/food transfer programs and institutionalized school feeding programs; public support for the development of private service and pluralistic service delivery system, alongside strengthening public capacity for performing regulatory and quality assurance functions effectively; formulating national dairy development policy and strategy to ensure coordinated policy implementation on the ground; encouraging the integration of emerging dairy cooperatives at higher levels and capacity building to enable them to demand service, command accountability, and serve as a mouthpiece of producers; capitalizing on the on-going Business Process Re-engineering for revising the prevailing reward systems in public research and extension to encourage innovation and impactorientation; creating incentive system such as leverage fund and competitive grant to encourage intervention-based public–private innovation partnership; and strengthening dairy platform at woreda and/or milkshed level for achieving of better impact through continuous incremental improvements and to facilitate scaling out and up of successful experience to achieve wider impact and inform higher policymaking.
Heading towards commercialization? The case of live animal marketing in Ethiopia
(Working Paper, 2007) Gebremedhin, Berhanu; Hoekstra, Dirk; Jemaneh, S.
The current levels of contributions of the livestock subsector in Ethiopia, at either the macro or micro level, is below potential. Policy, technological, organizational and institutional interventions to improve the contributions of livestock to the national economy need to be based on an understanding of the constraints and opportunities available based on sound theoretical and empirical analysis. This rapid marketing appraisal study is aimed at assessing the supply chains of live cattle and live shoats in the four Ethiopian regional states of Tigray, Amhara, Oromia and the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples region (SNNPR). Livestock production in Ethiopia is based on traditional technology and practices, and is subsistence oriented. Although efforts are being made to introduce and promote market oriented livestock production, with or without fattening, these efforts are miniscule compared with the size of the livestock population and the number of household who rear them. Hence, it is important to build on these efforts, evaluate them to learn lessons, and strengthen the extension service to promote the market orientation among the wider farming population. In most of the study areas, feed shortage was identifi ed as the most important constraint to livestock production. In some of the study areas, livestock diseases were identified as most important constraint, followed by feed shortage. Potential solutions to the feed problem vary depending on the resource bases of a particular intervention area. The relative bias of the extension service in favour of crop production has left the livestock extension service too limited. This calls for the need to invigorate the livestock extension service throughout the country. Especially, the development of market oriented livestock extension service deserves serious attention. Livestock credit supply falls short of demand in many of the study areas and some farmers complained about the periodic repayment schedule of the livestock credit. On average, there are four livestock market places per woreda. The primary markets in some of the Pilot Learning Woredas (PLWs) are fenced in which the respective municipalities charge buyers and sellers tax for sold animals upon exit. Farmers and traders in all of the study sites reported no or very little access to formal livestock marketing information. Farmers in all PLWs depend on actual market day information for prices and selling decisions. Livestock traders are almost exclusively male. Key informants indicated that there are no farmer associations or cooperatives involved in livestock marketing in the woredas, except in some areas where export abattoirs have established livestock marketing cooperatives and unions. The reasons for selling livestock, as reported by farmers, include the need to cover incidental cash expenses to fill household food defi cit gaps, buy clothing, cover school and medical fees, cover expenses for social events, down payment for credit and credit repayments, payment for labour for agricultural activities, buy other animals, and to purchase crop inputs. Forced sales due to shortage of feed and water during the dry period were also widely mentioned. The sale of male shoats dominates the sale of females. The age of shoats supplied to the markets in the eight PLWs ranges from 1 to 2 years. The most common weight of shoats offered for sale ranges between 15 to 25 kg live weight. In almost all PLWs livestock are transported mainly by trekking. Farmers and traders indicated a number of problems affecting marketing of shoats and cattle. The major ones include inadequate market places, lack of adequate supply of good condition animals, lack of holding (concentration) places, feed shortage, shortage of stock supply for fattening/reproduction, lack of market information and low price due to poor body conditions.
Marketing systems for fish from Lake Tana, Ethiopia: Opportunities for marketing and livelihoods
(Working Paper, 2007) Gordon, A.; Demissie, S.; Tadesse, M.
This report concerns the domestic trade in frozen fish sources from Lake Tana in Ethiopia. During the initial participatory rural appraisal (PRA), fish was identified as a commodity with market potential in one of IPMS's (Improving Productivity and Market Success of Ethiopian farmers project). eight pilot learning woredas (PLW), namely Fogera woreda on Lake Tana. ILRI invited WorldFish Center to provide inputs to IPMS in support of the fisheries-related work. From a marketing perspective, two main fish products were noted, as well as local consumption of fresh fish in the fishing communities: dried catfish, from the lake and the ponds, destined for Sudan and markets in northern Ethiopia and frozen fish (mostly lake barbus and tilapia), distributed largely to Addis Ababa, though some serves the restaurant/hotel trade in Bahir Dar on Lake Tana (and to a lesser extent, Gondar). This study focuses on the frozen fish market chain for fish produced in Fogera woreda. In addition, in the margins of the main study, it was suggested that a preliminary assessment be made of the potential importance of the dried catfish trade. It assesses the Addis Ababa market for frozen fish; describes and analyses the frozen fish production and marketing system, for fish originating from Lake Tana, in particular from Fogera woreda; identifies constraints to and makes recommendations for further develop the frozen fish trade originating from Lake Tana; and makes a preliminary assessment of the potential importance of the dried catfish trade.
Structure and functioning of chickpea markets in Ethiopia: evidence based on analyses of value chains linking smallholders and markets
(Working Paper, 2007) Shiferaw, B.; Teklewold, H.
This paper looks into one of the key policy questions - understanding of how rural grain markets function in the context of market liberalization and how the emerging architecture of marketing channels determines the distribution of costs, margins and prices for different participants in the marketing chains. We explore these issues using the case of chickpeas, one of the newly emerging export commodities being promoted for expansion in Ethiopia. Despite its important role and good potentials, the chickpea production system is not adequately market-oriented and competitiveness of smallholders is limited by low productivity and poor quality of traditional varieties (Shiferaw et al. 2007). Despite the policy interest to expand chickpea production for exports, there is lack of empirical evidence on the structure, conduct and performance of the chickpea marketing systems in the country. This study attempts to narrow this gap by examining the chickpea marketing system in one of the major growing areas and provides new insights on how the performance of the marketing system may be enhanced to improve competitiveness. Using primary data collected from a survey of marketing channels in one of the major chickpea growing areas in the country (Ada';a-Liben), we map the marketing channels and value chains for chickpeas and estimate the distribution of costs, margins and prices for the different participants in the identified value chains. The first section presents the conceptual issues in the analyses of marketing channels, value chains and measurement of marketing costs. This is followed by description of the study area, the survey data and the empirical approach and methods used in the analysis. The next section presents the main result with emphasis on identification and mapping of chickpea marketing channels and the distribution of costs, margins and prices across different market participants. The last section presents a summary of the key findings and conclusions, highlighting implications for policy.
Commercialization of Ethiopian agriculture: Extension service from input supplier to knowledge broker and facilitator
(Working Paper, 2006) Gebremedhin, Berhanu; Hoekstra, Dirk; Tegegne, Azage
Transforming Ethiopian agriculture from its current subsistence orientation into market orientated production system forms the basis of the agricultural development strategy of the Government of Ethiopia (GoE). The agricultural extension service is one of the institutional support services that has a central role to play in the transformation process. This paper makes use of literature review and information collected using Participatory Rapid Appraisal (PRA) techniques in eight woredas of four Regional States of Oromiya, Amhara, Tigray and Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region (SNNPR) in Ethiopia to assess the extension service development, and analyse the approaches and processes used by the current extension system. The paper also identifies some of the major bottlenecks in the extension system and suggests recommendations for a more market oriented support service. We find that the extension service is in the process of transition, with emphasis being shifted to the use of the newly established Farmers Training Centres (FTCs). The FTCs are expected to serve as hubs for the transfer of improved technologies and knowledge, skill development, and the provision of other institutional support services. We also find that agricultural extension service is provided almost exclusively by the government through the woreda (district) Offices of Agriculture and Rural Development (OoARD). Although the country is following market oriented agricultural development strategy, we find that the extension service that has been organized for achieving food security objectives has not yet been adapted (both in capacity and organizational structure) to provide extension service required for transforming subsistence agriculture to market oriented agriculture. Major problems of the extension system include top-down and non-participatory approach, primarily supply driven, low capacity of experts and development agents, low morale and high turnover of extension staff, and shortage of operational budget and facilities. It is recommended that steps be taken to adapt the extension service to fit into the market oriented development strategy. It is also recommended that support is provided to the extension services to develop pluralistic and interactive operational models geared towards market oriented agricultural development including involvement of the private sector extension through co-operatives and large-scale commercial production and marketing companies. The creation of agricultural innovation teams both at the federal and regional levels will help develop innovative approaches and capacities at the district level, thus contributing to the alleviation of the top-down nature of the extension service. Furthermore, it is recommended that the Agricultural Technical and Vocational Education and Training (ATVET) colleges be involved in the learning process and continuously include lessons learned in their curricula.
Integrating innovation systems perspective and value chain analysis in agricultural research for development: implications and challenges
(Working Paper, 2009-10-08) Anandajayasekeram, P.; Gebremedhin, Berhanu
The environment in which agricultural discovery and innovation occurs has been constantly changing with resultant significant influences on the organization and the social processes of discovery and innovation. As a result, there have been significant paradigm shifts in agricultural knowledge generation, dissemination and utilization. Currently, the knowledge generation, dissemination and utilization processes within the agricultural sector are guided by four complementary and mutually reinforcing concepts and principles: the innovation systems perspective (ISP); value chain approach; impact orientation; and research for development (R4D). Impact orientation and R4D are implicit in the concept of ISP. A major challenge confronting the agricultural research for development (AR4D) community is how to integrate these different concepts in the design, implementation and evaluation of AR4D. However, an operational model that integrates ISP and value chain approach into AR4D is lacking. This paper is an attempt to develop such an operational model. The paper also addresses the emerging issues and challenges in the integration process and its institutionalization within the broader framework of AR4D.

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