Climate Mitigation and Adaptation Pathways (CMAP)

Permanent URI for this collectionhttps://hdl.handle.net/10568/140563

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A framework for addressing the interconnectedness of early warning to action and finance to strengthen multiscale institutional responses to climate shocks and disasters
(Journal Article, 2025-01) Attoh, Emmanuel M. N. A. N.; Amarnath, Giriraj
Early warning systems (EWS) inform decision making and planning in response to climate shocks and catastrophic disasters. However, the current disaster response mechanism falls short due to the fragmented warning, action, and finance systems, coupled with inadequate institutional collaboration, coordination and inclusive engagement for effective anticipatory action. This study addresses this challenge by introducing an Early Warning, Action and Finance (AWARE) platform to promote anticipatory action through multistakeholder engagement. Data from literature re views, expert surveys, and stakeholder workshops in Senegal, Zambia and Sri Lanka helped identify the platform’s needs and priorities. The study draws upon theories of technological frames, interpretative flexibility, boundary objects, social learning, collaborative governance and adaptive co-management to conceptualize a framework for AWARE. Results demonstrate the potential of AWARE as a boundary object that fosters social engagement, active involvement, open communication, collaboration, and shared commitment to safeguarding lives and liveli hoods. Analysis of technological frames and interpretative flexibility underscores the role of social learning in shaping the design and user features that promote multiscale institutional responses to disasters. AWARE aligns with the priorities of the Sendai Framework and emphasizes system thinking, co-production of knowledge, and the need for context-specific solutions to enhance anticipatory action. Recognizing the limitations of one-size-fits-all EWS, the AWARE framework acknowledges contextual factors as barriers to implementation. The study underscores the importance of integrated EWS and collaborative efforts to overcome implementation barriers and improve anticipatory action outcomes.
New Information and Communication Technologies for climate services: evidence from farmers in Ada East District, Ghana
(Journal Article, 2025-01) Sarku, R.; Addi, F.; Attoh, Emmanuel M. N. A. N.
How people respond to climate information service (CIS) depends on how information is designed and communicated. While the introduction of new information and communication technologies (ICTs) has improved the delivery of CIS, there are persistent usability challenges, especially among smallholder farmers. This study examined the usability of new ICTs in delivering CIS for farming in Ada East District, Ghana. The research addressed the question, how do smallholder farmers respond to CIS delivered through new ICTs, and what are the usability challenges of these technologies. Using data from document reviews, interviews, and focus group discussions, findings show that farmers predominantly rely on local or indigenous knowledge and traditional ICTs like radio and television for CIS, 7 New ICTs including: Website on weather information, Bulletin on social media: Facebook, WhatsApp weather forecast presented as a flyer, YouTube video on weather information, Short message service (SMS), Audio WhatsApp weather forecast and Weather apps were identified, providing daily, weekly and seasonal forecasts outlooks. However, the utilisation of these new ICTs is relatively limited. Only a few farmers were aware of the delivery of CIS through these new ICTs. Farmers with smartphones are mainly those who access daily and seasonal forecast outlooks using new ICTs, while face-to-face interactions remain the common mode for disseminating information among farmers. Although new ICTs offer forecasts, usability is influenced by the relevance and comprehension of the content, location success and time, typography, symbols and graphics, language clarity, feedback and interactivity and ability to use the new ICT tools. The findings of the study have implications for CIS developers and providers to incorporate design principles such as revision of text structure, font style and size, symbols, wording pattern and word counts. It shed light on the evolving landscape of CIS delivery in farming communities, where traditional methods coexist with emerging digital platforms and provided knowledge on the need to raise awareness on the use of new ICTs with CIS among farmers.
Irrigated vegetable production interventions in humanitarian emergencies: Ethiopia country deep dive
(Report, 2024-12-30) Singh, Radhika; Minh, Thai Thi; Schmitter, Petra
Ethiopia is grappling with escalating humanitarian crises, including conflict-induced displacement and climate-related emergencies, and therefore mounting humanitarian needs. However, amidst these challenges, there is hope in the form of irrigated vegetable production (IVP) interventions, which have the potential to significantly decrease household vulnerability and build resilience to future shocks and stresses. Most importantly, these interventions aim to empower households by helping them generate additional income and improve their nutrition. For this study, 20 key informant interviews were conducted with humanitarian organizations in Ethiopia to understand how they design and implement IVP interventions during emergencies. Data from these interviews were combined with insights from secondary sources, including journal articles and project reports, to identify critical challenges and opportunities for IVP in Ethiopia. Key recommendations from this study include improving design and implementation of IVP interventions by humanitarian organizations. The recommendations are aligned with the Standards for Establishing Seed Systems in Disaster Settings (SEADS) minimum standards and complement SEADS guidance on tools, equipment, and other non-seed inputs and advice on impact monitoring and evaluation. First, it is necessary that IVP design, planning, and implementation are contextually relevant. This involves aligning interventions with the preferences and needs of beneficiaries by conducting comprehensive assessments of their vulnerabilities and tailoring interventions to the dynamics of the food, land, and water systems affected by emergencies. Gender inclusion is also highlighted in the recommendations, with a focus on understanding the household- and community-level gender dynamics that play a role in selection of crops and technologies. Second, mobilization of resources and investments to address funding shortages is important. This entails leveraging existing market structures, partnering with private sector entities, and collaborating with research institutions and government agencies. Inclusive financial mechanisms are recommended to support the more vulnerable households. Third, it is imperative to strengthen organizational capacity for resilience and long-term learning. This includes building comprehensive needs analysis capacity, implementing holistic IVP interventions, and influencing the enabling environment. Developing intra-organizational learning and strong monitoring and evaluation systems is also suggested. Lastly, organizational learning should be improved through data and knowledge management. This involves integrating data from multiple sources into a single platform, ensuring quick and easy access to it, and establishing robust reporting systems. The formation of a community of practice (CoP) focused on IVP in Ethiopia is proposed as a mechanism for knowledge sharing, capacity building, research collaboration, and policy alignment. These recommendations offer a roadmap for humanitarian organizations, donors, and policymakers aiming to enhance the effectiveness and sustainability of IVP interventions in emergency contexts within Ethiopia. They also provide a framework for engaging with existing policies and governance structures and creating an enabling environment for effective intervention.
Advancing climate-smart financial solutions for smallholder farmers: Lessons from the CGIAR Climate Resilience Initiative
(Brief, 2024-12-20) Timu, Anne G.; Laborte, Alice; Attoh, Emmanuel; Kikulwe, Enock; Kiundu, Paul; Guo, Zhe; Mayanja, Brian; Mbithi, Anthony; Sartas, Murat; Vyas, Shalika; You, Liangzhi
Smallholder farmers in low- and middle-income countries face climate-related risks that increase their income volatility and compromise their well-being. The CGIAR Initiative on Climate Resilience (ClimBeR) has developed and implemented a suite of innovative instruments aimed at transforming the climate adaptation capacity of smallholder farmers. This brief examines the potential of these bundled financial solutions in enhancing smallholder farmers' resilience to climate risks and documents ClimBeR's experience in implementing and scaling these instruments.
Strengthening food security and resilience through irrigated vegetable production in emergency settings: key issues and actions
(Brief, 2024-12-30) McTough, Mitchell; Minh, Thai Thi; Singh, Radhika; Schmitter, Petra S.
Impacts of climate extremes and land use land cover dynamics on water resources in West Africa
(Presentation, 2024-12-16) Obahoundje, Salomon
Why indicators matter for advancing the global goal on adaptation: the case of water and sanitation targets in the UAE-Belém work programme.
(Brief, 2024-11-25) Attoh, Emmanuel M. N. A. N.; Colombo, Chiara; Schmitter, Petra; Ravindranath, Darshini; Samarasekara, Vidhisha
The potential of Cambodia’s solar technology market to support farmer-led irrigation
(Opinion Piece, 2024-10-11) Minh, Thai Thi; Buntong, B.; Pavelic, Paul; Hin, L.; Flor, R. J.
Traditional irrigation systems in Cambodia, such as reservoirs, as well as river and canal systems, have limitations, leading to the emergence of farmer-led irrigation management. Meanwhile, solar irrigation has gained attention as a solution. However, challenges exist in matching demand with supply, as the solar irrigation market structure in Cambodia is monopolistic and limited in product choices. This article highlights the need for evidence-based targeting, stronger market demand-supply linkages, innovative marketing strategies and financing solutions to enable the uptake of solar irrigation and expand its potential benefits to farmers.
Assessing GHG emissions of a tropical large hydropower reservoir using G-res and GEE
(Journal Article, 2024-11) De Sarkar, K.; Ghosh, Surajit; Bhattacharyya, S.; Chowdhury, A.; Holmatov, Bunyod
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emission from tropical large hydropower reservoirs (LHRs) is the highest among all climatic zones due to the combinatory effect of elevated content of flooded organic matter and high temperatures. Traditional methods for GHG emission estimation involve extensive fieldwork, topographic surveys, hydrological analyses, and environmental assessments with high-end instrument requirements. In a country like India, where the hydropower sector is mushrooming rapidly, implementing these techniques on such a large scale is challenging. Alternatively, cloud-based tools like Google Earth Engine (GEE), G-res, and Earth Observation (EO) data related to biophysical and climatic conditions with in-situ reservoir water levels provide an opportunity to quantify GHG emissions from LHRs efficiently. In the present study, Maithon, one of the oldest LHRs in India, situated in a tropical climatic zone, has been studied by integrating site-specific parameters to estimate GHG emissions. The results from this study, which show that at the mean operating level (146.31 m) of the reservoir, net GHG emission is 1,024 - 1,271 gCO2e/m2/yr (with a 95% confidence interval), are of significant importance. This study highlights the GHG emissions varying greatly between the full reservoir level (786 gCO2e/m2/yr) and near the dead storage level (3,855 gCO2e/m2/yr), indicating the role of reservoir operating level in mitigating GHG emissions to achieve global goals like net zero emissions. There has been limited work globally using the G-res tool, and this is the first comprehensive study of initial GHG emission estimation of a tropical reservoir using G-res and GEE incorporating updated high-resolution land use land cover and Sentinel-1 images.
Bridging the gap: Analysis of systemic barriers to irrigation technology supply businesses in Ethiopia
(Journal Article, 2024-10-01) Teferi, Ermias Tesfaye; Assefa, Tewodros T.; Tilahun, Seifu A.; Wassie, Solomon Bizuayehu; Thi Minh, Thai; Béné, Christophe
This study examines the barriers faced by irrigation technology and service suppliers in Ethiopia, and their influence on business effectiveness. Data were collected from 42 firm owners and managers across 21 enterprises through online surveys, phone calls, and in-person interviews in August 2020. Additional insights were provided by 35 key informants. The study utilized a qualitative analysis of survey responses by employing narrative and triangulating information gathered from several actors in the irrigation technology supply chain. The results indicate that a range of barrier categories, including difficulties linked to business enablement, technology user behavior, and business capacity, significantly impede the development and success of small-scale irrigation technology enterprises in Ethiopia. More specifically, barriers include the increasing diffusion of substandard irrigation technology products, such as water lifting devices, and a scarcity of genuine spare parts, which present major obstacles for small-scale irrigation technology suppliers in Ethiopia. Insufficient user awareness regarding the importance of maintenance and repair services has led to frequent equipment failures, eroding consumer trust and demand for irrigation technologies. Additionally, limited access to market information and financial constraints, including foreign currency shortages, further hindered suppliers’ ambitions to increase the scale of their operations. More importantly, lengthy import processes and inefficient tax exemption systems increase equipment costs, impeding the adoption and dissemination of technologies, such as solar-powered irrigation pumps. Addressing these challenges is critical for improving the supply and effectiveness of irrigation technology in Ethiopia.
An evaluative framework for inclusive agricultural value chain policies and interventions – case: Mali
(Journal Article, 2024-09) Michalscheck, Mirja; Ekpe, S.; Birhanu, Birhanu Zemadim; Mabhaudhi, Tafadzwanashe; Minh, Thai Thi
Advancing food security requires multi-level and inclusive approaches. This article presents a novel framework to (E) evaluate the social inclusiveness of policies and interventions (PIs) towards (V) vulnerable social groups in (A) agricultural value chains. The EVA-framework is applicable to any value chain, geography and vulnerable group. We apply it to the irrigated vegetable value chain of Mali, analyzing the social inclusiveness of weighted PIs towards women and youth. We find that respective PI formulation in Mali is largely not inclusive. Only few PIs set specific targets, quotas or a financial budget for women and youth inclusion. To be inclusive PIs need to consult targeted social groups, include clear targets, budgets, and accountability mechanisms, and be monitored and evaluated.
Catalyzing farmer-led irrigation development in Africa: vision and pathways drawing from business, research and development practices
(Brief, 2024-07-16) Minh, Thai Thi; Ofosu, Abena; Cofie, Olufunke; Li, R.; Bobtoya, Saadia; Makenzi, M.; Schmitter, Petra
Farmer-led irrigation development (FLID) has been part of the farming system for hundreds of years, but has only recently attracted increased attention from government institutions, donors and development organizations. Yet, despite its vast potential, FLID has only been expanding slowly. Barriers to scaling include inadequate policy and legal frameworks, underdeveloped irrigation technology and supply chains, a lack of affordable finance, and limited access to input and output markets. Transformative scaling of FLID requires identifying the sociotechnical innovation bundles that fit, designing and implementing effective scaling strategies, and fostering multi-actor engagement and partnerships to achieve impact and trigger changes across farm, local, national, regional and global scales.
How can Africa attain climate resilient development?
(Brief, 2023-10-01) Okem, Andrew E.; Ali, E.; Chevallier, R.; Attoh, Emmanuel M. N. A. N.; Kapesa, T.; Efitre, J.; Lukorito, C. B.; Nying'uro, P. A.; Ogola, C.; Osei-Amponsah, Charity; Wamukoya, G.
Are the metrics that companies use effective for monitoring supply chain sustainability? A closer look at cocoa and rice
(Brief, 2024-07-01) Jones, Sarah; Sanchez, Andrea; Wickramaratne, Chaturangi; Wakaabu, Dirisa; Ivanova, Yovita; Minh, Thai; Mockshell, Jonathan; Sánchez Choy, José G.; Steinke, Jonathan
In a globalized world, consumers need to rely on information provided by agri-food companies to assess the impacts of the food they eat. And consumer interest in eating responsibly is growing, as stories of agriculture-driven deforestation, pollinator declines, and inhumane worker conditions hit the headlines. Major markets are responding too, by starting to require that agribusinesses demonstrate their products meet environmental and social standards (Kinderman, 2020), with the EU law banning products linked to deforestation as a recent example (http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2023/1115/oj). Companies know they need to meet these market requirements and consumer demands, to stay competitive. Indeed, despite an initial cost spike to set up effective monitoring systems, firms benefit financially in the long term from sustainability reporting (Friske et al., 2023), as this helps expand their consumer base. Companies have responded by seeking sustainability certification (e.g. Organic, Fairtrade, Rainforest Alliance) or setting themselves sustainability targets and reporting against these. Certification remains a market niche in part due to the high costs, and has its limitations since no single certification scheme addresses social, environmental and economic sustainability dimensions. For this reason, companies seek to demonstrate their sustainability commitments using company-determined targets and monitoring systems. Yet within this space, there is no clear guidance or consensus across agrifood businesses on which targets to set, which indicators to use to measure progress towards them, and how to collect reliable data on these indicators cost-effectively. This makes it difficult to compare companies and products. It increases the likelihood that some companies are using outdated, unreliable or costly methods to collect data because of a lack of tools and knowledge transfer across regions and commodities. It also creates a risk that certain locally important negative impacts (e.g. water depletion, soil degradation, forced labour, and farmer debt-levels) are under-reported, and that the indicators in use are poorly suited to the agroecological, multifunctional farms of the future (e.g. yield measured in tons/ha is a metric well-suited to monocultures and not to agroforestry systems, where whole system yields should be captured). Companies along cocoa and rice supply chains are no exception and the way they choose to monitor sustainability impacts has worldwide importance. An estimated 5.9 million tons of cocoa is produced each year (FAOSTAT, 2022) and used in a range of products, with chocolate the best known and loved by the consumer, while 776 million tons of rice is produced and is a major staple providing approximately 20% of the world’s calories (FAOSTAT, 2022).
Strengthening multi-stakeholder agroecology platforms in Vietnam: A landscape analysis
(Report, 2024-06-07) Tran, Dinh Thi; Thai, Thi Minh; Dubois, Mark; Blum, Helen; Mockshell, Jonathan
Using multi-stakeholder platforms offers a promising approach for sharing agricultural innovation, reducing transaction costs, and catalyzing development through stimulating stakeholder engagement in the innovation process to accelerate food systems transformation. Agriculture-related multi-stakeholder platforms (AMSPs) are major players to intervention strategies of agricultural development programs. However, AMSPs face multiple challenges that limit and negatively impact their functions. This study aims to map the AMSP landscape, examine their operational activities, and provide recommendations for strengthening private- and public-sector engagement to support long-term agricultural sustainability in Vietnam. The study used a three-step qualitative research approach to identify AMSPs and subsequently collected secondary and primary data. Results reveal three types of AMSPs classified from 35 identified platforms: (i) development organization-led, (ii) civil society organization (CSO)-led, and (iii) government organization-led platforms. Their main characteristics were then investigated according to the four basic dimensions of organizational theory: structural, contextual, operational, and relational aspects. Next, the study analyzed the influence of each AMSP type on agricultural policies and practices, including those integrating agroecological approaches. The study then examined each AMSP’s achievements and challenges related to AMSP impact and sustainability, together with the constraints related to private- and public-sector engagement, and incentives and investment in agroecological transition. This landscape analysis has identified various mechanisms and possibilities for the Agroecological TRANSITIONS Program — and other related sustainable approach projects — to engage with these AMSPs. This collaboration will stimulate a process for the co-design and co-creation of innovative incentive mechanisms to leverage investment, support the use of holistic traceability tools, and scale-out agroecological practices in rice value chains in Vietnam.
Assessing the spatial distribution patterns of suitable inland valleys for rice development: a case study of two contrasting regions in Benin
(Journal Article, 2024-05-17) Djagba, J. F.; Dossou‑Yovo, E. R.; Sintondji, L. O.; Vissin, E. W.; Zwart, Sander Jaap
To increase rice production in Africa, both intensification and area expansion are needed. Inland valley (IV) agroecosystems are important for rice production due to their relatively high water availability and soil fertility. However, the spatial distribution of suitable IVs remains uncertain. The objective of this study was to model spatial distribution patterns of suitable IV areas for rice production. Biophysical, socioeconomic and management practice data were collected from 242 IVs in two contrasting regions in Benin, namely, the Departments of Mono and Couffo (Mono-Couffo) and the Upper Ouémé River catchment (Upper Ouémé). Geographically weighted regression (GWR) and ordinary least squares (OLS) models were used to predict the spatial distribution of suitable IV areas for rice production. The results showed that the GWR model performed better than the OLS model in assessing the IV suitability spatial distribution. There were 177,714 ha (46%) and 431,954 ha (31%) of highly suitable IVs for rice production in Mono-Couffo and Upper Ouémé, respectively. The most significant variables for predicting suitable IV areas for rice production were irrigation water resources, soil fertility management and total nitrogen in topsoil in Mono-Couffo and the number of male farmers in the IV, shallow water table duration at the IV bottom, and elevation in Upper Ouémé. These results demonstrated the effectiveness of the GWR model in assessing the distribution of highly suitable IVs.
A rapid assessment of vegetable and irrigation systems in Tigray, Ethiopia, before and after the 2020-2022 conflict
(Report, 2024-03-01) Mwambi, M.; Hruy, G.; Boset, A. M.; Singh, Radhika; Schmitter, Petra; Legesse, W. B.
Before the 2020-2022 war, the food system in Tigray supported the livelihoods of most of the population, with 80% of Tigrayans relying on smallholder agriculture for food and income. The major crops were cereals, cultivated by 90% of farm households, with vegetables and root crops grown by 26% of farmers. The conflict that erupted in 2020 had devastating impacts on the food system, farmers and their livelihoods, but the extent of the impact on vegetable production is not documented. This rapid assessment was thus undertaken to understand the situation before, during and after the conflict, on vegetable systems, including irrigation which is a key resource for production. A total of 10 focus group discussions and 24 key informant interviews were carried out in July and August 2023, in the Southern, Southeast, Eastern and Central zones of Tigray. The main vegetables grown before the conflict included pepper, tomato, cabbage, onion, and potato. There was also an increasing trend in vegetable production, the use of irrigation, and irrigation infrastructure development. Inputs such as fertilizer and seed were provided through the national and regional governments. The conflict led to a disruption of the vegetable and irrigation systems as crops and infrastructure were destroyed, transportation blocked, and labor reduced due to migration. Inputs such as seeds and fertilizers became unavailable. Food insecurity increased and most people shifted their production patterns to prioritize cereals instead of vegetables. However, vegetable consumption reportedly increased as the vegetable market was not there and households opted to substitute common bean-based side dishes with vegetables because beans were not available or accessible. The situation after the conflict is that vegetable production remains low with only 30% of total irrigable land being utilized, down from 70% pre-conflict. A diversity of vegetables is still be grown, however, including tomato, onion, peppers, cabbage, Swiss chard, and lettuce, among others. Most producers are selling their vegetables for income while little is kept for consumption. Food insecurity continues to be the greatest challenge, as most households cannot produce because of the loss of productive assets, and ability to purchase food is limited because of the loss of employment and income. As efforts are channeled towards the recovery of the livelihoods in Tigray, vulnerable groups including refugees and internally displaced persons face the most challenges in recovering. Key interventions to support the vegetable and irrigation systems should concentrate on improving access to and availability of seed, and irrigation infrastructure, improving market linkages, and improving awareness of vegetables for nutrition and health, with a focus on the most vulnerable groups.
Cultural competence-based framework: a multilevel and multidimensional perspective on contemporary science culture
(Journal Article, 2024-04-01) Minh, Thai Thi; Osei-Amponsah, Charity
This article presents a cultural competence-based (CCB) framework to analyse contemporary science culture. Starting from the observation that two separate views of culture-as-context and culture-as-practice cannot address the ongoing transitions in the contemporary sciences towards esoteric–exoteric trans-sphere governance and multicultural science, we introduce key ideas from ‘older’ varieties of competence-based culture theories. We argue that a spectrum of cultural and sociocultural systems shapes contemporary science culture by being (un)supportive of individual scientists acquiring cultural competence and guiding scientists’ research practices. In contrast, individual scientists’ cultural competence shapes the fabrication of cultural and sociocultural systems through their scientific practices, thereby shaping contemporary science cultures. We also synthesize different concepts of science culture, reflect the transitions in contemporary sciences and construct three dimensions of the cultural system, sociocultural system and cultural competence from various elements. By providing a conceptual framework that contributes to a better understanding and management of contemporary science culture, we hope to enhance effective work ethics and fit-for-purpose science knowledge to address emerging ‘wicked’ societal challenges.
Open strategizing for developing smart city food system: stakeholder inclusion in practice
(Journal Article, 2024-06-01) Mahdad, M.; Minh, Thai Thi; Dinh, T. T.; Vanhaverbeke, W.
The positive impact of stakeholder engagement (SE) in smart city development initiatives has received notable scholarly attention over the past decade. Researchers of stakeholder engagement have investigated various aspects of the engagement process from different theoretical perspectives, yet the complexity and dynamism of inclusion, especially at the societal level and in the context of smart city development, continue to inspire more research. Drawing from the intersection of open strategy (OS) and SE, we seek to enhance understanding of the open strategizing process by elucidating stakeholder inclusion practices in a smart city initiative, focusing on food systems in Da Nang, Vietnam. Our participatory action research draws on 114 semi-structured interviews and four stakeholder workshops to analyze the way stakeholder inclusion practices unfold in the strategic decision-making process of a smart city initiative. Our analysis reveals that stakeholder inclusion is complex and involves four interdependent practices at different stages of the strategizing process. These practices are trust formation, common language creation, role transformation, and expectation alignment. Together, they culminate in the creation of an interactive social space for the strategy-making process. The proposed analytical framework highlights the interdependencies among practices and their outcomes at different stages of the open strategizing process and could serve as a guideline in a context in which stakeholder inclusion at the planning phase is necessary to achieve systemic change.
Market segmentation to facilitate scaling of solar-based irrigation bundles in Ethiopia
(Brief, 2024-04-25) International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
Despite the high potential of and strong demand for wider adoption of agricultural innovations in Ethiopia, scaling efforts have often been ineffective, and innovation adoption remains limited. Successful and sustainable innovation scaling requires co-identifying and co-developing best-fit solutions for farmers and other actors in the value chain. Bundling these solutions, such as solar-powered irrigation pumps, with pay-as-you-go financing has improved the enabling environment for adoption. Identifying the farmer segments interested in investing in such bundles and strengthening linkages along the irrigation value chains are essential for matching demand and supply and creating the conditions to reach scale.

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