IITA Working Papers
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Item Early detection of plant virus infection using multispectral imaging and machine learning(Case Study, 2024) Grieve, B.; Duffy, S.; Dallas, M. M.; Ascencio‑Ibanez, J. T.; Alonso-Chavez, V.; Legg, J.; Hanley-Bowdoin, L.; Yin, H.Climate change-resilient crops like cassava are projected to play a key role in 21st-century food security. However, cassava production in East Africa is limited by RNA viruses that cause cassava brown streak disease (CBSD). CBSD typically causes subtle or no symptoms on stems and leaves, while destroying the root tissue, which means farmers are often unaware their fields are infected until they have a failed harvest. The subtle symptoms of CBSD have made it difficult to study the spread of the disease in fields. We will use an engineering advancement, our active multispectral imager (MSI), to rapidly determine the infection status of plants in the field in Tanzania. The MSI observes leaves using many different wavelengths, and the resulting light spectra are interpreted by machine learning models trained on cassava leaf scans. Under laboratory conditions, the MSI detects CBSD infection with 95% accuracy at 28 days post-infection, when plants have no visible symptoms. Our multinational team is studying and modeling the spread of CBSD to assess the efficacy of using the MSI to detect and remove infected cassava plants from fields before CBSD can spread. In addition to improving the food security of people who eat cassava in sub-Saharan Africa, our technology and modeling framework may be useful in diseases of other vegetatively propagated crops such as banana/plantain, potato, sweet potato, and yam.Item Error 404, farmer not found: Why agricultural information services must consider how smallholders use their phones(Working Paper, 2024-10-02) Steinke, Jonathan; Ortiz Crespo, Berta; Bunn, Christian; Etten, Jacob van; Jimenez, Daniel; Tam Thi Le; Manners, Rhys; Muller, Anna; Phuong Minh Nguyen; Ogunsamni, Thompson; Schumann, Charlotte; Simiyu, Maryfaith; Sotelo, Steven; Talsma, Tiffany; Zapata, EmmanuelNumerous barriers hinder mobile information services in delivering information effectively to smallholder farmers. Many of these barriers can be explained by farmers’ habits in using their phones. Therefore, carefully considering how exactly farmers use their phones in specific local context is crucial to mitigate behavior-related barriers. We describe 18 potential behavioral barriers that should be checked before implementing mobile information services for smallholder agriculture.Item A review of gender equality and social inclusion issues in Zambia’s agribusiness ecosystem(Working Paper, 2024-08) Bikketi, E.; Liani, M.L.; Cole, S.; Chikoye, D.Item Applications, benefits, and challenges of genome edited crops(Working Paper, 2024-03-27) Evanega, Sarah; Brown, Zachary; Bubeck, Dave; Falck-Zepeda, José B.; Chou, Fan-Li; Graham, Nat; Karavolias, Nicholas; Tripathi, L.; Yerka, MelindaThe paper discusses the advancements and potential of genome editing in agriculture, highlighting how genome editing tools, first described over a decade ago, are now being applied across various crops and trait combinations, promising benefits for producers and consumers. It also addresses global efforts to update regulatory frameworks to govern this technology and reviews recent advances in genome editing tools, select applications underway, the technology’s benefits, and significant challenges to its success. The paper concludes with five recommendations to ensure that genome editing in agriculture benefits society.Item Introduction to the concept of validation exercises(Working Paper, 2023-11) Kreye, C.; Flor, R.; Manners, R.Item Inventory of novel approaches to seed quality assurance mechanisms for vegetatively propagated crops (VPCs) in seven African countries(Working Paper, 2022-10) Sulle, E.; Pointer, R.; Kumar, P. Lava; McEwan, M.This paper provides an inventory of novel approaches to and mechanisms for quality assurance of the seeds of vegetatively produced crops (VPCs). It explores to what extent seven African countries (Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia) are decentralising and integrating VPC seed systems, in terms of regulations governing the sector, methods of seed production, and methods of seed inspection and certification. It consolidates existing data and presents new data on decentralised seed quality assurance (SQA) approaches for VPCs in these seven selected countries. It makes relevant information readily available for policy dialogue on appropriate and inclusive SQA approaches, by providing an assessment of (i) the extent to which SQA has been decentralised, i.e., the extent to which third-party accredited inspectors have been deployed; (ii) countries’ use of e-certification platforms; (iii) the involvement of seed producer groups and cooperatives in SQA; and (iv) any novel approaches to disease diagnostics or other relevant aspects of SQA. The paper uses different, appropriately sequenced methods to ensure the different methods complement each other to offset the disadvantages of each method. These include a comprehensive literature review, an online survey, and key informants’ virtual interviews. These are complemented by expert interviews, especially with both IITA and CIP experts based in Tanzania, Uganda, and Ethiopia plus one CIP expert with overall knowledge of the project countries in Africa. Based on an online survey completed by officials from regulatory agencies from eight countries, and follow-up interviews with seed certification officials and researchers in the seed sector, the paper finds that almost all studied countries have some sort of decentralised seed production system in place, allowing large-scale companies, medium-semi-commercial companies and small holder farmers opportunities to produce both quality declared and certified seeds. These decentralised seed production systems may be regarded as novel, in that they deviate from the standard seed system practices proposed at international level, which focus on enforcing certified seed production. Further, the novelty is based on different countries adopting different processes because of different local constraints and different government/political structures. Such novelty is necessary in the African context of, inter alia, poor infrastructure for transporting VPC seeds long distance and limited technical skills for certifying seed. The innovative approaches chosen by these African countries are suitable for VPC seeds like those of cassava, sweetpotato, bananas, yams and potato – all of which have bulky and perishable planting materials. The paper shows that it is possible to make decentralised VPC seed systems a reality in the right circumstances, and that in some cases countries have already made strides in doing so. However, several gaps exist in different countries, all of which need to be addressed. They include problems such as (i) legislation and regulations not specifically considering the quality assurance requirements of VPCs; (ii) shortages of trained staff throughout the system, but especially in far-flung areas; (iii) unavailable or inadequate training materials and handbooks; (iv) inadequate resources at local level, including support for inspection equipment and resources (e.g., vehicles); (v) poor monitoring and administration capacity in farmers’ cooperatives/associations; and (vi) poor consideration given to gender empowerment. Each of these and other issues are discussed throughout the report and in the recommendations at the end of the document. Stakeholders in the VPC sectors need to address key challenges facing VPC seed producers and users such as the lack of specific regulations for VPCs and standards, especially in the countries which are either still developing such standards and regulations, or entirely do not have such tools in place. The absence of crop specific guidelines and standard operating procedures result in (i) low capacity to produce quality VPC seed, (ii) poor storage and handling facilities for seed and (iii) inadequate experience, technical skills and training among the seed inspectors and certifying officials from state seed regulatory agencies, especially lack of staff specialised in certifying VPCs. Simple, flexible and less bureaucratic systems are much more desirable for developing countries, even while countries must maintain a focus on quality control and quality assurance mechanisms within the legal provisions of seed laws, including those of novel approaches (Loch and Boyce, 2001). Quality control and quality assurance are important preconditions for ensuring the availability of planting materials and for piloting novel approaches such as decentralised seed production and quality control approaches. It is thus important for countries to mainstream and scale up sustainable quality assurance systems that work by establishing context-appropriate seed regulatory frameworks. While individual farmers, farm-based associations, farmer cooperatives and private companies have invested and continue to invest in production of VPC seeds, public investments in this sector are needed to realise wider system change and impact. Because VPC seeds are bulky, perishable and have high disease risks, many seed companies are not interested in these crops. Therefore, is important to secure political buy-in for decentralised VPC production and devolved VPC seed inspection so that states are encouraged to invest in supporting regulatory agencies and decentralised offices to deliver their services efficiently and effectively. In turn, this will allow farmers to secure the extension services they require. To ensure scalability and sustainability of novel approaches like the decentralisation of seed production and quality assurance, piloted initiatives must be sustained, including (i) for capacity development; (ii) providing adequate resources (competent personnel, funding and the necessary technologies like electronic platforms); and (iii) more importantly, the presence of an entrenched policy, legal and institutional framework that is implemented on the ground. As part of the remedy for these challenges, the paper recommends that engaged stakeholders in the VPCs sector provide targeted training of seed inspectors. In many countries, seed standards for VPCs and provisions in the law were designed based on the experiences of grain (maize) seeds, which have significant differences with VPCs. Therefore, seed inspectors need training for inspection of VPCs (i.e. varietal identification, crop specific pests and diseases). This can be complemented by capacity development efforts at different levels; for example, (i) training extension officers to undertake inspections and how to use relevant equipment (including any ICT devices); (ii) training seed producer associations on technical and governance/administrative aspects for ensuring equity, accountability and monitoring; and (iii) training seed producers to inspect their own seed and fields. Countries need to establish and scale up seed producers’ associations. In countries where seed producer associations are in place, they have shown to be cost-effective by mobilising fellow seed producers who need seed inspections to pay inspectors as a group instead of as individuals. This has in turn also driven the demand for inspection from the relevant authorities, because inspection activities such as these generate income for government agencies. With associations in place, it is possible to help seed producers and farmers to identify markets for both seed and produce, to create a virtuous cycle whereby producers buy improved seed because they have a market for their improved produce. Finally, stakeholders need to implement or scale up e-certification platforms like SeedTrackerTM to reduce the burden and costs associated with manual and physical activities related to seed inspection and certification. Where ICT systems such as SeedTrackerTM have not been implemented, roll these out in all countries, ensuring both that they are suitable for each country’s specific needs, and that they align with regional and international seed policy. In countries like Nigeria and Tanzania where SeedTrackerTM is in place, it is imperative that most of these tools are improved to address the current limitations. Meanwhile, achievements – including the use of successful ICT tools – need to be promoted through regular communication and dialogue at all levels, including between farmers, seed producers and breeders (about the preferred traits for improved varieties and any challenges farmers are facing), and between stakeholders (to ensure alignment on the goals of seed quality assurance, how to ensure quality, and how to address problems).Item The tricot citizen science approach applied to on-farm variety evaluation: methodological progress and perspectives(Working Paper, 2020-12) Etten, Jacob van; Abidin, E.; Arnaud, Elizabeth; Brown, D.; Carey, E.; Laporte, Marie-Angélique; López Noriega, Isabel; Madriz, Brandon; Manners, Rhys; Ortíz Crespo, Berta; Quirós, C.; Sousa, K. de; Teeken, Béla; Tufan, Hale Ann; Ulzen, J.; Valle-Soto, J. F.Tricot (triadic comparisons of technologies) is a citizen science approach for testing technology options in their use environments, which is being applied to on-farm testing of crop varieties. Over the last years, important progress has been made on the tricot methodology of which an overview is given. Trial dimensions depend on several factors but tricot implies that plot size is as small as possible to include farmers with small plots (yet avoiding excessive interplot competition) while many locations are included to ensure representativeness of trials. Gender and socio-economic work is focused on better household characterization and recruitment strategies that move beyond sex-aggregation to address aspects of intersectionality. Ethics, privacy and traditional knowledge aspects will be addressed through expanding digital support in this direction. Genetic gain estimates need to be addressed by yield measurements, which can be generated by farmers themselves. There is conceptual clarity about the needs for documentation of trials and publishing data but this aspect requires further digital development. Much progress has been made on the ClimMob digital platform already, which is user friendly and supports trials in the main steps and includes open-source data analytics packages. Further improvements need to be made to ensure better integration with other tools. A next step will be the development of scaling strategies that involve business development. An important input into these strategies are economic studies, which are ongoing.Item Crucial determinants of adoption: material systems for banana and maize: June 2006, Brief 20(Working Paper, 2006) Smale, Melinda; Kikulwe, Enoch Mutebi; Edmeades, S.; Byabachwezi, M.; Nkuba, J.; Groote, H. deItem The dynamic of cassava in Africa; an outline of research issues: COSCA working paper, No. 9(Working Paper, 1993) Fresco, Louise O.Item Collaborative Study of Cassava in Africa (COSCA); site selection procedure: COSCA working paper, No. 2(Working Paper, 1989) Carter, S.E.; Jones, P.G.This paper describes the methods of site selection used for a village-level survey which comprised the first phase of the Collaborative Study of Cassava in Africa (COSCA). Potential survey regions are defined using spatial data which describe ecological conditions, human population densities, accessibility, and the distribution of cassava production. Sixteen different types of regions are identified. Methods are described for selecting random samples of grid cells in each survey region, and for identification of 'villages' for surveys within each cell. The grid used for mapping climate. population, access and the crop's distribution is maintained as a frame throughout the survey site selection process. This will be useful during data analysis jf raster techniques are employed to map the data generated.Item Current and future trends in tillage in the humid and subhumid tropics(Conference Paper, 1983) Hartmans, E.H.; Kuile, C.H. terItem COSCA phase I processing component: COSCA working paper, No. 7(Working Paper, 1992) Natural Resources InstituteItem Seasonality of cassava processing in Africa and tests of hypotheses: COSCA working paper, No. 6(Working Paper, 1992) Ugwu, B.; Ay, P.Item Performance of IITA developed cassava postharvest technologies(Working Paper, 1991) Jeon, Y.; Halos, L.The paper describes the package of postharvest equipment for processing Cassava into various forms of food products. Field performance features are presented in terms of effect on system efficiency and some measurable socio-economic impact. Technology development strategies derived from the fie ld testing are discussed.Item COSCA site selection procedure: COSCA working paper, No. 2(Working Paper, 1989) Carter, S.E.; Jones, P.G.Item Collaborative Study of Cassava in Africa (COSCA); project description: COSCA working paper, No. 1(Working Paper, 1988) Nweke, F.I.COSCA was initiated through the realization that the potentials of cassava depends on availability of more detailed and reliable information on the cassava crop. The general objective of COSCA is therefore to improve the relevance and impact of agricultural research on cassava by International Agricultural Research Centres and National Agricultural Research Systems in Africa in order to take full advantage of. the potentials of cassava in increasing food production and incomes of poor people. COSCA will be conducted in Cote d'lvoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Zaire, Uganda and Tanzania. The major consideration in the choice of these countries is that they provide a wide range of conditions of climate, altitude, population density, and market access infrastructure in the important cassava zones of the continent in order to collect relevant information over a wide range of ecologies in the cassava belt of Africa. A systems approach, with a multi-disciplinary team, is adopted in COSCA to study cassava within the context of mixed farming and food systems. Not only will information be collected on production, processing, marketing and consumption of cassava, but also similar information will be collected on other crops which are grown or consumed in the same farming and food systems. COSCA study will be conducted in three phases, Phase I will involve broad characterization of the cassava producing zones. Information will be collected by group interviews at the village level and by key informant interviews at institutional level. Phase 1\ will involve characterization of individual production, processing, marketing and consumption units. The information will be collected on single visits and collection methods will include direct observations, field measurements, and individualized interviews. Phase III is an extension of Phase II but involves more intensive surveys with repeated interview visits for collection of information on seasonal variables. The components of COSCA are integrated into one study for data collection and analyses. Integration is assured at data collection stage through the sampling process. Phase II survey will be conducted on a subsample of Phase I sites and Phase III survey win be conducted on subsamples of Phase II. During the analyses, COSCA study is further integrated since each hypothesis will be tested with information collected at different phases and on different components. The time frame is 4 years between 1988 and, 1992, with intermediate outputs issued at the end of each phase. These outputs will be disseminated through a working paper series, research reports, journal articles, books and conference proceedings, especially the triennial symposia of the African Branch of the International Society of Tropical Root Crops.Item The identification of agroecological zones for cassava in Africa with particular emphasis on soils: COSCA working paper, No. 5(Working Paper, 1991) Stoorvogel, J.; Fresco, Louise O.Item Status of data on cassava in major producing countries of Africa: Cameroon, Cote d lvoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zaire(Working Paper, 1990) Nweke, F.; Lynam, J.; Prudencio, C.Item COSCA project description: COSCA working paper, No. 1(Working Paper, 1988) Nweke, F.I.The general objective of the Collaborative Study of Cassava in Africa (COSCA) is, to improve the relevance and impact of agricultural research on cassava by international agricultural research centres (!ARC) and national agricultural research systems (NARS) in Africa in order to take full advantage of the potential of cassava in increasing food production and incomes in Africa. The countries participating are Cote d'lvoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Zaire, Uganda and Tanzania. The major consideration in the choice of these countries is that they represent the important cassava zones of the continent and provide a wide range of ecological and socio-economic conditions. COSCA has adopted a systems approach, with a multi-disciplinary team, in order to collect information on cassava within the context of African farming and food systems. Not only will information be collected on production, processing, marketing and consumption of cassava, but similar information will be collected on other crops which are grown or consumed in the same fanning and food systems. The Collaborative Study of Cassava in Africa will be conducted in three phases: Phase I will involve a broad characterization of the cassava producing zones. Information will be collected by group interviews at the village level and by key informant interviews at the institutional level. Phase II will involve characterization of individual production, processing, marketing and consumption units. The information will be collected on single visits and collection methods will include direct observation, field measurements, and individualized interviews. Phase III is an extension of Phase II, but involves more intensive surveys with repeated interview visits in order to collect information on seasonal variables. These components of COSCA will be integrated into one study for data collection and analysis. Integration is assured at the data collection stage through the sampling process. Phase II of the survey Will be conducted on a subsample of Phase I sites; and Phase III will be conducted on subsamples of Phase II. During the analysis, the study will be further integrated, since each hypothesis will be tested with information collected at different phases and on different components. The three phases have been spread over a 4-year time frame (1988 -1992). After each phase is completed the output will be disseminated through a working paper series, research reports, journal articles, books and conference proceedings, in particular the triennial symposia of the African Branch of the International Society of Tropical Root Crops.Item Methodologies and data requirements for cassava systems study in Africa: COSCA working paper, No. 4(Working Paper, 1990) Nweke, F.; Lynam, J.; Prudencio, C.