Urban food markets in Africa: Incentivizing food safety using a pull-push approach

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Cost-effectiveness of interventions toward improving microbial food safety of chicken meat along supply chains in Burkina Faso and Ethiopia
(Journal Article, 2025-03-02) Ssemanda, J.N.; Besten, H.M.W. den; Dione, Michel M.; Amenu, Kebede; Knight-Jones, Theodore J.D.; Zwietering, M.H.; Wagenberg, C.P.A. van
Estimates for the cost-effectiveness of food safety interventions are needed to direct food safety management decisions. In this study, we estimated the cost-effectiveness of food safety interventions to control Campylobacter spp. and Salmonella spp. along the chicken meat supply chain in Burkina Faso and Ethiopia. Using Monte-Carlo simulation models, we estimated the cost-effectiveness ratio (CER) of these interventions from the annual costs of an intervention (in United States Dollar, ($)) divided by their respective public health benefits (avoided disability-adjusted life years (DALY)) for each pathogen separately and for the two pathogens combined. The lower the CER of an intervention the better. In Burkina Faso, out of 16 candidate interventions, the three interventions with the lowest CER were improved handwashing in chicken restaurants (Campylobacter spp. 387 $/avoided DALY (95 % Prediction interval: 69–1468); Salmonella spp. 7801 (1067–33,492)), using designated kitchen utensils at restaurants (549 (107–2026); 4515 (671–18,957)), and avoiding cross contamination between live birds at market (768 (187–2620); 5127 (933–20,423)). In Ethiopia, out of 15, the interventions that came first were, improved transport conditions of live birds (296 (79–996); 534 (150–1770)), adding plant extracts to feed or water at farms (387 (69–1532); 581 (108–2256)), and adding organic acids to feed or water at farms (454 (69–1947); 1226 (195–5178)). When all costs were attributed to chicken meat, the household interventions in Ethiopia had substantially higher CER than interventions in other supply chain stages, because of the low number of chickens prepared and consumed at home in a year. When only part of the costs was attributed, the CER of these household interventions were reduced by over 90 % ranking them as the most cost-effective interventions in the supply chain. When considering public health benefits of both Campylobacter spp. and Salmonella spp. in Burkina Faso, the CERs were 11 to 64 % lower compared to the CER when only considering Campylobacter spp. and 59 to 96 % lower if only looking at Salmonella spp., depending on the intervention. In Ethiopia, this was 25 to 80 % for Campylobacter spp. and 36 to 87 % for Salmonella spp., respectively. Thus, attribution of intervention costs to the food product of interest and inclusion of multiple pathogens can have a substantial impact on the estimated cost-effectiveness of control measures. Our developed framework and models can be used to estimate the CER of food safety interventions, guide implementation of food safety measures in chicken meat supply chains of not only in Burkina Faso and Ethiopia but also in other LMICs with similar conditions.
Fast food over safe food? A qualitative evaluation of a food safety training intervention for street vendors applying the COM-B model in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
(Journal Article, 2024-11-21) Madjdian, D.S.; Badu V.D.; Ilboudo, Guy S.; Lallogo, Valerie R.; Dione, Michel M.; Asseldonk, M. van; Knight-Jones, Theodore J.D.; Vet, E. de
The safety of ready-to-eat food sold in urban informal markets in low and middle-income countries is a pressing public health challenge, that needs to be addressed if we are to establish healthy food systems. Guided by the Capability, Opportunity, and Motivation model for Behavior change (COM-B), this qualitative study aimed to explore perceptions of street vendors on their participation in a food safety capacity building intervention, consisting of training and provision of food safety equipment. The intervention aimed to improve food safety behavior of vendors of ready-to-eat chicken in informal markets in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. A total of 24 vendors selling ready-to-eat chicken at street restaurants participated in semi-structured interviews after training, which focused on vendors’ stories of change related to food safety capabilities, opportunities, motivation, and behaviors. Data were thematically analyzed following COM-B components. Vendors noted improvements in psychological (i.e., knowledge, awareness, self-efficacy, perceptions) and physical capabilities (i.e., equipment useability and applicability), and motivations (perceived responsibility, reputation, client satisfaction, profits, consumer demand). Moreover, training and provision of equipment, spill-over effects to employees or neighboring outlets, and social support were perceived as key social and physical opportunities, while structural challenges such as market infrastructure, regulations, financial resources, cost of living, and outlet culture were physical barriers to implement lessons learnt. This study provides insights into the impact of engaging vendors in improving food safety behavior through training and equipment provision. Improvements in vendors’ perceived capabilities and motivation contributed to improved food safety behavior, while contextual barriers hindered the perceived adoption of food safety behaviors.
Empowering consumers to purchase safe ready-to-eat chicken from street restaurants in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso: impact of a multi-media behavior change campaign
(Journal Article, 2024-10-21) Madjdian, D.S.; Asseldonk, M. van; Talsma, E.F.; Dione, Michel M.; Ilboudo, Guy; Roesel, Kristina; Grace, Delia; Knight-Jones, Theodore J.D.; Vet, E. de
Foodborne disease resulting from food sold at urban informal markets is a major public health challenge in Sub-Saharan Africa. This study assessed the impact of an innovative nine-months multi-media campaign engaging a key influencer, aimed at empowering consumers to choose safer ready-to-eat chicken meat at informal street restaurants in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. A two-wave panel study assessed associations between recall of TV, radio, billboard, and social media advertisements, and self-reported behavior regarding purchasing and consumption of ready-to-eat chicken at outlets, consumer intentions, knowledge, attitudes, norms, and agency. A panel of randomly selected adult consumers (n = 852) were interviewed pre- and post-campaign, 12 months apart. 60% recalled at least one of the campaign channels when prompted. Mixed-effects models showed associations between prompted recall and feeling better informed about food safety (aOR 1.449) and increased knowledge (0.132 unit increase on total score). Social media recall was associated with higher perceived access to information (aOR 1.449) and knowledge. Billboard recall increased odds of higher perceived health benefits of paying attention to food safety behaviors when purchasing chicken (aOR 2.046). TV ad recall was associated with a 0.159 unit decrease in the gap between consumers’ intentions and behavior. An engaging consumer food safety multimedia campaign that engages key influencers improved food safety awareness and knowledge, ultimately supporting consumers to choose safer chicken at markets.
Food safety and hygiene knowledge, attitudes and practices in street restaurants selling chicken in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
(Journal Article, 2024-09-06) Gemeda, Biruk A.; Dione, Michel M.; Ilboudo, Guy; Assefa, Ayalew; Lallogo, Valerie; Grace, Delia; Knight-Jones, Theodore J.D.
Introduction: Chicken is the most commonly consumed animal source food in street restaurants in Burkina Faso. In most of these restaurants, slaughtering, processing, and cooking practices are carried out under poor hygienic conditions. Methods: A cross-sectional survey using a semi-structured interview was carried out to assess food safety knowledge, attitude, and hygienic practices of food handlers in street restaurants selling chicken in Burkina Faso’s capital, Ouagadougou. One hundred chicken restaurants were randomly selected, and food handlers were interviewed. Results and discussion: Most restaurants served eat-in and takeaway chicken (66%); the remaining 34% were takeaway only; restaurants served grilled, flamed or roasted chicken. Only 11% of the food handlers had training on food hygiene and safety. Half the outlets were not regularly inspected by the authorities. Less than half (40%) slaughtered their own chickens at the restaurant: of these 85% bled chickens on bare earth. About 80% cleaned the bleeding surface immediately after slaughter with water but only 20% used water with either soap or disinfectant detergent. Eighty-two percent of them used the same cloth during slaughtering and food preparation stages. Many used the same knife in all stages of the slaughtering process. Two-thirds kept carcasses unrefrigerated at ambient temperature until cooking started. Around a quarter buried slaughter waste on-site whereas 20% disposed of it on the street near the restaurant. Only 20% had taken steps to improve food safety, and about 80% of food handlers stated that cleanliness and hygiene were not important to their customers when choosing where to eat. Almost half (42%) the food handlers continued to work when they were ill. The poor standards of hygiene observed are typical for street food and small-scale eateries in LMICs in sub-Saharan Africa. An integrated approach is required to improve the situation, including staff training, introduction of food-grade equipment and appropriate technology, behavior-change approaches, as well as worker and consumer awareness campaigns on good food safety practices. However, significant, sustained improvement in food safety will also require major upgrading of infrastructure and facilities including power and water supply, and cold chain.
Tomato supply chain and food safety challenges in Ethiopia: Testing interventions
(Presentation, 2024-07-16) Amenu, Kebede; Gemeda, Biruk A.; Madjdian, D.; Tacken, G.; Legesse, W.; Dinede, Getachew; Girma, S.; Megersa, B.; Ganser, C.; Wagenberg, C. van; Havelaar, A.; Grace, Delia; Knight-Jones, Theodore J.D.
Food safety research evidence for action: Experiences from Ethiopia
(Presentation, 2024-06-25) Amenu, Kebede; Alonso, Silvia; Mutua, Florence; Sinh Dang-Xuan; Knight-Jones, Theodore J.D.; Grace, Delia
Empowering consumers to choose safer chicken in informal markets in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
(Poster, 2024-06-28) Madjdian, D.; Tacken, G.; Asseldonk, M. van; Vet, E. de; Talsma, E.; Dione, Michel M.; Ilboudo, Guy; Snoek, H.; Knight-Jones, Theodore J.D.; Grace, Delia
Impact of a mass-media consumer awareness campaign on food safety behavior and behavioral determinants among women in Dire Dawa and Harar, Ethiopia
(Journal Article, 2024-09) Madjdian, D.S.; Asseldonk, M. van; Talsma, E.F.; Amenu, Kebede; Gemeda, Biruk A.; Girma, S.; Roesel, Kristina; Grace, Delia; Knight-Jones, Theodore J.D.; Vet, E. de
Food safety is a pressing public health challenge in urban informal markets in sub-Saharan Africa. This study assessed the potential effectiveness of a nine-months food safety multi-media behavior change campaign implemented in Dire Dawa and Harar, Ethiopia (June 2022-February 2023) that aimed to encourage women to choose intact (safe) tomatoes at markets and safely prepare at households. Campaign channels included door-to-door household visits by health extension workers, TV and radio advertisements, billboards, and social media posts. Consumer panel surveys assessed self-reported food safety behavior and related behavioral determinants (i.e., intentions, knowledge, attitudes, norms and agency) pre-and-post campaign, 12 months apart. The sample included 765 consumers at endline with an attrition rate of 28.5%. Mixed-effects linear and ordered logistic models estimated changes associated with prompted recall. Campaign recall was high with 78.3% recalling a minimum of one channel. Recall was associated with higher access to safe food purchasing (aOR 1.994) and preparation (aOR 1.654) information. door-to-door visits, radio, and TV advert recall were associated with safer buying behavior recall (0.520, 0.515, 0.515 unit increases resp.). Prompted recall was associated with a 0.921 unit increase in safe household food preparation scores, where door-to-door visits and billboard showed the strongest association. Recall increased odds of higher intent to buy intact tomatoes (aOR1.409); printed media recall related to a 1.314 unit increase in knowledge scores. Finally, recall was associated with higher perceived health benefits (aOR 1.546), social descriptive norms (aOR 1.458), and self-efficacy (aOR 2.5) regarding safe tomato practices. In conclusion, a mass media behavior change campaign has potential to empower consumers to choose safer food in informal markets. Door-to-door visits, TV, radio and print media were notably more effective than social media channels. Beyond enhancing consumer knowledge and behavior, broader efforts are vital for enhancing food safety in urban informal markets, including ensuring the availability and affordability of intact, clean tomatoes by engaging and motivating actors within the tomato value chain.
Training and tool supply to enhance food safety behaviors among ready-to-eat chicken vendors in informal markets in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso: a randomized-controlled trial
(Journal Article, 2024-09) Madjdian, D.S.; Asseldonk, M. van; Ilboudo, Guy; Dione, Michel M.; Ouedraogo, A.-A.; Roesel, Kristina; Grace, Delia; Talsma, E.F.; Knight-Jones, Theodore J.D.; Vet, E. de
In Burkina Faso, street food vendors are key in ensuring food safety in urban markets, particularly within the poultry value chain. The sale of high-risk ready-to-eat chicken by these vendors poses substantial health hazards, emphasizing the urgency for capacity-building to enhance food safety practices. This study evaluated the effect of a participatory interactive three-day training program coupled with tool supply, on self-reported and observed behavior, and knowledge, attitudes, and cognitions vendors of street ready-to-eat chicken in Ouagadougou’s informal markets. A two-armed RCT was conducted, including pre- and post-training vendor surveys, along with direct outlet observations. Total sample size comprised 162 vendors, with 72 in the treatment group and 90 in the control group. Self-reported behavior - measured on a 5-point scale - significantly improved in the treatment group including higher frequency of mask wearing (1.8±0.8 vs 2.5±1.2, p<0.001) and inspecting nail hygiene (4.3±0.8 vs. 4.7±0.6, p<0.001). Treatment outlets improved on securing adequate evisceration platforms (1.3±0.6 vs. 1.0±0.5, p=0.054) regular carcass water renewal (61.8% vs. 36.4%, p=0.038), and handwashing during carcass management (1.1±0.5 vs. 0.9±0.3, p=0.008). Better adherence to handwashing (1.1±0.4 vs. 0.9±0.3, p=0.051), fork use (58.9% vs. 41.8%, p=0.029), proper handwashing facilities (38.4% vs. 20.9%, p=0.014), and waste management (64.4% vs. 37.8%, p<0.001) were observed in treatment outlets. Trained vendors scored significantly higher than controls on knowledge (effect size 0.75, p<0.001). Vendors rated the perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, trust in materials/tools, measured on a 5-point scale, as high and perceived mean increased daily profits (21242 FCFA) and number of customers (8.3) following training. In conclusion, training combined with a tool package proved effective in fostering significant food safety behavior changes, underscoring its substantial impact beyond just knowledge enhancement. For lasting behavior changes, ongoing training and support, an enabling environment, and strong incentives that prioritize vendor food safety behaviors informal markets are crucial.
Quantitative assessment of food safety interventions for Campylobacter spp. and Salmonella spp. along the chicken meat supply chain in Burkina Faso and Ethiopia
(Journal Article, 2024-04-16) Ssemanda, J.N.; Besten, H.M.W. den; Wagenberg, C.P.A. van; Zwietering, M.H.
Rural and small-scale chicken farming is a major source of income in most African countries, and chicken meat is an important source of nutrients. However, chicken meat can be contaminated with Campylobacter spp. and Salmonella spp., pathogens with a high reported burden of foodborne illnesses. Therefore, it is essential to control these pathogens in chicken meat. Quantitative microbial risk assessments (QMRA) can aid the development of effective food safety control measures and are currently lacking in chicken meat supply chains in the African context. In this study, we developed stochastic QMRA models for Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp. in the chicken meat supply chain in Burkina Faso and Ethiopia employing the modular process risk model in @Risk software. The study scope covered chicken farming, transport, slaughtering, consumer handling, and consumption. Effectiveness of candidate interventions was assessed against baseline models' outputs, which showed that the mean annual Campylobacter spp. risk estimates were 6482 cases of illness per 100,000 persons and 164 disability adjusted life years (DALYs) per 100,000 persons in Burkina Faso, and 12,145 cases and 272 DALYs per 100,000 persons in Ethiopia. For Salmonella spp., mean annual estimates were 2713 cases and 1212 DALYs per 100,000 persons in Burkina Faso, and 4745 cases and 432 DALYs per 100,000 persons in Ethiopia. Combining interventions (improved hand washing plus designated kitchen utensils plus improved cooking) resulted in 75% risk reduction in Burkina Faso at restaurants and 93 to 94% in Ethiopia at homes for both Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp. For Burkina Faso, adding good hygienic slaughter practices at the market to these combined interventions led to over 91% microbial risk reduction. Interventions that involved multiple food safety actions in a particular step of the supply chain or combining different interventions from different steps of the supply chain resulted in more risk reduction than individual action interventions. Overall, this study demonstrates how diverse and scanty food supply chain information can be applied in QMRA to provide estimates that can be used to stimulate risk-based food safety action in African countries.
Prevalence of Salmonella in fresh produce tomatoes sold in open market in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
(Journal Article, 2023-12-21) Bognini, H.; Kagambèga, A.; Tiendrebeogo, W.P.B.; Sawadogo, A.; Barro, N.; Knight-Jones, Theodore J.D.; Dione, Michel M.
Tomato is a widely consumed vegetable in Burkina Faso and throughout the world. However, when handled improperly, it can serve as a vector of pathogen transmission to human if ingested raw or through cross-contamination with cooked food. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of Salmonella spp. from tomatoes sold in the markets of Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso and characteristics of vending conditions. One hundred and ninety-eight (198) different tomato samples were randomly purchased from one hundred and thirteen (113) different vendors in the markets of Ouagadougou. The samples were examined and classified into three categories according to their texture and the level of deterioration. The prevalence of Salmonella spp. identification was determined using standard microbiological methods. A survey was conducted using a questionnaire on transport and vending conditions for tomatoes. In total, Salmonella prevalence was 19.19% in all tomato’s samples analyzed and was 18.18% for intact category, 22.73% in D2 category and 16.67% in category D4. The survey revealed poor transport and sales conditions for the majority of tomato sellers. The present study revealed the presence of Salmonella in tomatoes samples. These results highlight the risk associated with the consumption of tomatoes if hygienic practices are not respected during tomatoes handling and preparation. The results of the study also show the need to wash tomatoes systematically after purchase with a disinfectant, especially tomatoes sold in open markets in developing countries.
Urban food markets in Africa—Incentivizing food safety using a pull–push approach: Closing workshop report
(Report, 2023-11-30) Ilboudo, Guy S.; Dione, Michel M.; Ouedraogo, Brice; Kagambèga, A.; Knight-Jones, Theodore J.D.
Burden of foodborne disease in Ethiopia: Estimates of Pull-Push project to inform national food safety management
(Presentation, 2023-12-12) Wagenberg, C. van
Training of trainers manual on best practices in handling and hygiene when processing animal-source food: Case of street chicken in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
(Manual, 2023-11-30) Dione, Michel M.; Ilboudo, Guy S.; Kagambèga, A.; Knight-Jones, Theodore J.D.
Potential food safety risks in tomato value chains in urban settings of Eastern Ethiopia: a qualitative investigation
(Journal Article, 2023-12-04) Amenu, Kebede; Megersa, B.; Jaleta, M.B.; Dinede, Getachew; Worku, H.; Kasim, K.; Taha, M.; Ibrahim, A.M.; Kedir, J.; Mego, Lina; Roesel, Kristina; Roothaert, R.; Srinivasan, R.; Grace, Delia; Knight-Jones, Theodore J.D.
Background: The value chains of tomatoes in Ethiopia are largely informal which may pose potential food safety risks. Value chains (VCs) mapping was carried out with emphasis on tomatoes in two major cities in eastern Ethiopia—Harar and Dire Dawa—which were assessed to identify practices likely to result in unsafe food, considering production, transportation, retail, preparation, and consumption. Methods: Qualitative methods were used to map the VCs to understand the flows, actors, and practices. Group discussions and key informant interviews were performed to better understand the processes, practices, beliefs, and food safety risks in these VCs. Results: The two cities are supplied by two vegetable VCs: the first and larger being from distant producers in central Ethiopia, and the second from surrounding rural and peri-urban producers. The long-distance VCs involve producers, brokers, transporters, wholesalers, retailers, and consumers. The local producers, however, bring their fresh products directly to the cities without the involvement of VC actors other than final retailers and consumers. The study suggests microbiological contamination risks along tomato VCs, potentially including soil contamination, use of sewerage-contaminated irrigation water, untreated manure, unhygienic handling and storage conditions, and dirty contact surfaces during transportation and retailing. Tomatoes are mostly harvested by hand picking, collected, and sorted on the ground exposing to sunlight and physical bruising with potential contamination. More importantly, tomatoes are widely consumed raw without “a kill-step” that certainly contributes to food-borne infections. Suggestions by study participants for improving food safety and hygiene include funding toward improved infrastructure and facilities in the sectors, supporting VC actors with improved technology for quality production, and increasing awareness of good and hygienic practices. Consumers were particularly concerned about contamination with agrochemicals without much emphasis on the potential microbial contaminants. Fresh tomatoes are prepared in a variety of ways and are often consumed raw or slightly cooked. Further recommendations included using health extension workers to conduct awareness campaigns on improved food safety and hygienic practices. Conclusion: The qualitative VC mapping generated useful information for designing intervention strategies, especially targeting developing food safety interventions and an awareness communication campaign.
Foodborne hazards in food in Burkina Faso, 1990–2019: A systematic review and meta-analysis
(Journal Article, 2023-10-20) Dinede, Getachew; Amenu, Kebede; Alonso, Silvia; Gazu, Lina; Mutua, Florence K.; Roesel, Kristina; Lindahl, Johanna F.; Sousa, F.M.; Ulrich, P.; Guadu, T.; Dione, Michel M.; Ilboudo, Guy S.; Knight-Jones, Theodore J.D.; Grace, Delia
Background: Foodborne diseases impose substantial public health burden and jeopardize socio-economic development worldwide. While accurate information on foodborne hazards is needed for informed decision in food safety interventions, such information is scarce in developing countries such as Burkina Faso. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies reporting foodborne hazards in foods in Burkina Faso to describe the present knowledge of the situation. Methods: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guideline was used to conduct this review. Abstracts were searched in PubMed and CAB direct between 1 January 1990 to 30 September 2019. We used random-effects models to estimate pooled prevalence and I2 values to measure heterogeneity between studies. Results: 188 articles were identified, of which 14 are included in this review: 12 were on bacterial hazards (Salmonella, Campylobacter, Staphylococcus, E. coli, Shigella), three on fungal hazards and one on parasitic hazards (Toxoplasma gondii). The overall pooled prevalence of Salmonella spp. was 13% (95% CI: 8–21), the highest in lettuce: 50% (95% CI: 30–70) and the lowest in milk: 1.2% (95% CI: 0–5), demonstrating substantial variation among the studies (I2 = 85, 95% CI: 79–90%, p < 0.01). Campylobacter spp. was reported in chicken carcass, with 50% of the samples being positive. The overall pooled microbial load of Staphylococcus in the studied food samples was 3.2 log (95% CI: 2.8–3.6) CFU per g or ml of food, the highest in poultry samples: 4.5 log (95% CI: 2.8–6.2) CFU per g or ml of food. The overall pooled prevalence of Escherichia coli (E. coli) was 40% (95% CI: 29–51), the highest in beef intestines: 62% (95% CI: 22–91) and the lowest in dairy products: 31% (95% CI: 17–50), showing substantial variation across the studies (I2 = 86, 95% CI: 80–90%, p < 0.01). Conclusion: Our results showed widespread contamination of foods with foodborne hazards across various food value chains indicating poor hygienic handling of foods, raising consumers’ health risk due to foodborne illnesses from the foods. We recommend promotion of awareness creation in food safety and improved monitoring of hazards in food.
International Livestock Research Institute: Our work, what I do, opportunities
(Presentation, 2023-08-15) Knight-Jones, Theodore J.D.
Economic costs related to foodborne disease in Burkina Faso and Ethiopia in 2017
(Journal Article, 2023-08-03) Wagenberg, C.P.A. van; Havelaar, A.H.
Introduction: Foodborne diseases (FBD) are a significant problem in low- and middle-income countries, especially in Africa. Country-specific estimates of the economic costs related to FBD caused by different hazards in different food products can inform decision makers about this problem’s magnitude. This aids policy makers in prioritising actions to mitigate risks and prevent illness. Although estimates exist for many high-income countries, they are lacking for African countries. Methods: This study estimates economic cost in Burkina Faso and Ethiopia related to FBD caused by non-typhoidal Salmonella enterica (NTS), Campylobacter spp. (CAMP) and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) in all foods, chicken meat and tomatoes. The World Health Organization’s estimates of FBD burden, updated from 2010 to 2017, were used as a basis. Economic cost estimates were the sum of estimates of willingness-to-pay (WTP) to reduce risk of death and of pain and suffering, and lost productivity. WTP was based on value of statistical life (VSL) and value of statistical life year (VSLY), extrapolated from USA data. We used sensitivity options to account for uncertainty in these values. Results: Mean economic costs related to FBD caused by NTS, CAMP and ETEC in 2017 were estimated at 391 million constant 2017 international dollars in Burkina Faso and 723 million in Ethiopia. These represent 3.0% of gross national income in Burkina Faso and 0.9% in Ethiopia. Lost productivity contributed 70%, WTP to reduce risk of death 30%, and WTP to reduce risk of pain and suffering 1-2%. NTS caused the highest costs, followed by ETEC and CAMP. Chicken meat caused 9-12 times higher costs than tomatoes. Children under five years (14.6-17.1% of populations) bore 20-75% of the costs. Due to uncertainty in disease burden and economic data, costs could be four times higher than mean estimates. Discussion: Policies to control FBD likely result in substantial benefits, especially efforts aiming at this study’s hazards in chicken meat and children under 5 years. Efforts to reduce uncertainty in VSL, VSLY and disease burden estimates, estimate costs for other countries, attribute costs to other food products and hazards, further standardise estimation methodologies, and estimate treatment costs and illness prevention expenditures are recommended.
Detection and quantification of pesticide residues in tomatoes sold in urban markets of Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
(Journal Article, 2023-07-11) Dione, Michel M.; Djouaka, R.; Mbokou, S.F.; Ilboudo, Guy S.; Ouedraogo, A.A.; Dinede, Getachew; Roesel, Kristina; Grace, Delia; Knight-Jones, Theodore J.D.
Introduction: “What people worry about, and what makes them sick and kills them, are not the same” is maxim for risk communication experts. In Burkina Faso, pesticides are used by vegetable producers to improve productivity. However, consumer concern over pesticide use is high. Of course, if over-used pesticides could have serious health consequences for producers and consumers and also cause ecological damage. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted to detect and quantify the levels of residues of pesticides in tomatoes sold in urban markets of Ouagadougou. Two samples were collected from each vendor (n = 328 vendors) making a total of 656 tomato samples from 26 markets. Samples were subjected to High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) for detection and quantification of six pesticide residues commonly used in West Africa including acetamiprid, chlorpyrifos, lambda-cyhalothrin, deltamethrin, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), and permethrin. Results: Overall, 62.2% of tomato samples contained at least one pesticide residue including acetamiprid, chlorpyrifos, lambda-cyhalothrin and DDT. Deltamethrin and permethrin were however not detected in any samples. The highest proportions of samples were contaminated with DDT (32.9, 95%CI: 27.9–38.3%), followed by acetamiprid (31.1, 95%CI: 26.2–36.5%), lambda-cyhalothrin (28.4, 95%CI: 23.6–33.6%) and chlorpyrifos (10.7, 95%CI, 7.6–14.6%). 21.3% of samples exceeded Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) Maximum Residue Levels (MRLs) including Acetamiprid (13.1%), DDT (7.3%), lambda-cyhalothrin (2.1%) and chlorpyrifos (0.3%); while 61.3% of sample exceeded European Union (EU) MRLs. Multiple pesticide residues (up to 4) were detected simultaneously in 27.7% of the total samples. Conclusion: The study suggests that producers and consumers may be exposed to pesticides that can be highly toxic to them and to the environment. We recommend further quantitative risk assessment for consumer exposure and identification of best procedures to reduce residues in vegetables. Meanwhile, monitoring and regulating pesticide use, with the promotion of good agricultural practices, are warranted to prevent consumers, producers and environmental exposure. However, given this may not be effective, promotion of consumer washing and peeling of vegetables may be warranted to at least empower consumers to protect themselves. Moreover, where resources are scarce they should be directed to the highest burden hazards and in Burkina Faso, these are not likely to be pesticides.
Assessment of pesticide residues in vegetables produced in central and eastern Ethiopia
(Journal Article, 2023-06-15) Dinede, Getachew; Bihon, W.; Gazu, Lina; Mbokou, S.F.; Girma, S.; Srinivasan, R.; Roothaert, R.; Grace, Delia; Gashaw, H.; Knight-Jones, Theodore J.D.
Background: In Ethiopia, pesticides are widely used in vegetable production. However, if used incorrectly they may harm consumers of vegetables contaminated with pesticide residues, as well as producers handling the pesticides and lead to ecological damage. We performed a cross-sectional survey to assess pesticide residues in vegetables produced in central and eastern Ethiopia. Methods: A total of 232 vegetable samples (91 tomatoes, 106 cabbages and 35 Swiss chard) were collected from fields and retail markets, and were screened for 35 pesticides (16 organochlorine, 11 organophosphate, 3 pyrethroids, 2 carbamates and 3 other agrochemicals) using GC–MS analysis. Results: Pesticides residues were detected in 60% of Swiss chard, 47% of cabbage and 45% of tomato samples. Two or more pesticides were detected in 20% of cabbages, 13% of tomatoes and over half of Swiss chard samples. Bendiocarb, diazinon, endrin, piperonyl butoxide, profenofos and propargite were detected, but only diazinon, propargite and profenofos had residual values above EU Maximum Residue Level (MRL), with diazinon commonly detected at relatively high levels. About 15% of the total analyzed samples, 10% of cabbages and tomatoes, and nearly half of Swiss chard samples had pesticide concentration exceeding EU MRL. However, none of the tested samples had residues exceeding Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex) MRLs. Conclusion: This study showed widespread contamination of vegetables with pesticides, mainly organophosphates. We recommend monitoring and regulation of pesticides usage, with promotion of good agricultural practices.

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